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World War I and The Struggle of the European Order VANQUISHED VICTORS NERVOUS NATIONALISM AND THE DECLINE OF THE EUROPEAN WORLD ORDER 1900-1929 CHAPTER 28 Stereopticon Images of the Western Front World War I from a Global Perspective From a global perspective, World War I appeared as a European Civil War Colonial and semi-colonial powers witnessed the catastrophic failure of a system that seemed invulnerable European powers would call upon its colonies for help and turn over colonial responsibilities to indigenous people An outside power (United States) would be needed to tip the balance of war The experience of this war transformed the relationship between Europe and the world 3 Key Questions: Europe and the Great War What forces that propelled Europe to world dominance would incite the First World War? How did the growing instability of the European system lead to its collapse and the outbreak of war in 1914? How did Germany hope to defeat two powerful enemies on its flanks? How did it almost succeed? How did the catastrophe of 1914 mark the beginning of the end of the European era? How did it reshape the continent and the Middle East? 4 From a European Perspective… The forces of industrialism, nationalism and liberalism that supported Europe’s ascendency and confidence imploded The cultural self confidence and certainty that had been building since the Age of Reason would end by 1915 The peace that ended this war in 1919 was only temporary: The World Wars could be viewed as one continuous war with a 20 year cease fire 5 Europe on the Eve of World War I Europe in 1914 •What nations of modern Europe did not exist 100 years ago? •What nations had vastly different borders? World War I and the Post War Era: In A Nutshell The economic, political and social forces that had been building since Napoleon incited conflict within the European system Nationalism- fulfilling national destinies Capitalism- control of markets and resources Autocracy and democracy- internal dynamics and the balance of power The imperialism that brought European rule over most of the world made this conflict global in nature The growth of technology and its application in warfare made this war much longer and bloodier than anticipated The unifying and divisive forces of nationalism dominated the post-war settlement of Europe, but European imperialism would repress nationalist movements in most of their colonies The peace settlement was to bitter to be accepted by the losers and too mild to keep the losers down Open the door for Marxist challenges to nationalism, liberal democracy and imperialism The victors were vanquished and or disillusioned Set the stage for an even more brutal war 20 years later World War I: The Causes Way to remember the causes of World War I: ANIMAL Alliances- dividing Europe into armed camps Nationalism- emotional bond and sense of destiny Imperialism- global reach for empire Militarism- focus on solving disputes through military engagement Anarchy- lack of international law and mediation Leaders- leaders who sought popular support and led nation to war Alliances and The First World War: Creating a chain reaction Following Franco-Prussian War France felt insecure- allied with Russia to check Germany (1894)- A Defensive Pact Germany’s Growing Sea Power threatens British interests- Britain joins Russia and Britain in 1907 (Triple Entente)- Cooperative Agreement Germany counters with alliance with AustriaHungary and Italy (Triple Alliance)- (1882)A Defensive Pact Most stable and powerful nations allied to the most unstable- the actions of one nation could spark a general war Italy did not join Austria and Germany in 1914- joined Britain France and Russia in 1915 Nationalism and the Rush to War France and wounded nationalism French set on revenge since 1871- loss of Alsace and Lorraine territory Nationalism and the Powder Keg of Europe: The Balkans Aspirations for independence- Greater Serbia Bosnia- Absorbed into Austria- Serbia outraged Balkan Wars: 1912 and 1913-Challenge to Turkey and a fight for the spoils Assassination of the Austrian Archduke by a Serbia Nationalist – spark that set off war… Russia as the supporter of Serbian Nationalism Russian interests in Southeastern Europe checked by Austria Austria feared Slavic nationalism and its Russian supporters Saw Germany as a counterweight to Russia National indignation hard for governments to check- popular press and jingoism- militant chauvinistic nationalism German Nationalism: Scene All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) How does this scene in the movie capture the spirit nationalism and the virtues of war? How does it beckon back to the writings of von Treitschke? How might nationalism set off an assassination and magnify the response to it? All Quiet on the Western Front 11 Imperialism and The Great War By 1900, the major European powers ruled the world Every colonial claim had the potential for conflict Germans challenged Britain and France in Africa Italy wanted an African empire Imperial conquests and nationalist rivalries Germany’s drive for colonies and naval build up threatened British naval dominance Challenge the imperial status quo Warring powers would draw men and material from colonial populations Japan (an ally of Britain) saw war as the opportunity to gain German territories Militarism: The Nationalist Response to Self Preservation Military buildup beginning in the late 19th Century Most nations adopted universal conscription German and Austrian military expenditures doubled between 1910 and 1914 Naval arms race between Britain and Germany Military leaders held overwhelming influence Inflexibility of military planning: Germany and the von Schlieffen Plan Germany expected a two front war: France and Germany Russia slow to mobilize: dedicate few resources east Rush a bulk of resources west (disciplined railroad application)envelop Paris- Then transport troops against Russia Russian mobilization would force Germany to quickly attack France The West and the von Schlieffen Plan Von Schlieffen’s plan was adapted by Helmut von Molke to include invading Belgium- This would bring Britain into the war Anarchy: The Lawlessness Among Nations International community an anarchy with no effective enforcement of international law International cooperation extended only as far as narrow military alliances No permanent international forum to mediate disputes Limited opportunity for neutral negotiations- In lawless communities, force is the law One of the results of the war- The League of Nations Leaders: Deciding for War •“Prosecuting an active foreign policy would smother internal troubles” •Leaders were rewarded by popular support for standing their ground and threatening war to settle disputes. •Many leaders were more afraid of not fighting war than fighting- much different 20 years later •Struggling Hapsburg Empire benefits from Wilhelm II’s saber rattling foreign policy •Growing nationalized mass society demanded assertive leadership •The three emperors pictured in the bottom row would effectively be the last for their nations The Guns of August: The Animal Unleashed June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist- Austria presents Serbia with an ultimatum July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. July 29: Russia, Serbia's ally, orders the mobilization of troops. August 1: Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, declares war on Russia and demands the neutrality of Russia's ally France; France refuses and mobilizes. (remember von Schlieffen Plan) August 3: Germany declares war on France. August 4: Germany invades neutral Belgium, as per the Schlieffen plan to knock-put France; Britain responds by declaring war on Germany. November 5 Ottomans join Central Powers (anti-Russian) Italy joins the Allies April 1915 Americans declare neutrality but economically support allies The Allies and Central Powers 1914 The Declaration of war by Britain in 1914 would include the British Empire including Australia, New Zealand and Canada Expectations in the Summer of 1914 War would be quick and decisive Germany’s wars in 1860’s and 1870’s were largely 1 battle affairs (New technology and the modern state? War would bring glory to people and nations- War as cultural hygiene (von Treitschke) France- Revenge and return of Alsace- Lorraine Germany- Support Austria and check Russia- end alliance that threatened security Austria- End Russian influence in South Eastern Europe- check Slavic nationalism Britain did not want a single nation dominant on the continent The Western Front in 1914: An Unexpected Stalemate Failure of the von Schlieffen Plan August-September 1914 Belgium actively resisted Germany’s march through their country German armies unable to flank the French north of Paris (far western line) By October, both sides set opposite lines of defensive trenches- little movement and much destruction Bleeding the Opponent: The Somme, Verdun and the War of Attrition The Germans and Austrians able to hold the underequipped Russian army Attempts to “break out” on the western front in 1916 degraded into a war of attrition- Victory measured in enemy blood Verdun- The French Gettysburg February-December 1916 French fortress town Attacked to “bleed France white” France lost 550,000 and the Germans 434,000 The Somme-(February-November 1916) British offensive to take pressure off French at Verdun British lose 420,000- 58,00 on first day Germans lose 500,000 French lose200,00 Nations exhausted but unwilling to quit the field French armies began to refuse to engage the enemy 22 Readings: The Battle of the Somme The Battle of the Somme PBS The War The War of the Industrial Revolution: New Technology from http://www.henhudschools.org/webpages/alupien/resources.cfm?subpage=730973 Trench Warfare Trench Warfare “No Man’s Land” War Is HELL !! German submarine U9 (1914) A Canadian soldier with mustard gas burns, ca. 1917-1918 British 55th Division troops blinded by tear gas await treatment at an Advanced Dressing Station near Bethune during the Battle of Estaires, 10 April 1918, part of the German offensive in Flanders. German infantry improvising gas masks during the First World War (probably 1915) British Vickers machine gun crew wearing anti-gas helmets, July 1916 A German trench in the swamp area near the Hell Lakes on the Eastern Front , 1915 Sacrifices in War French Renault Tank British Tank at Ypres U-Boats The Airplane “Squadron Over the Brenta” Max Edler von Poosch, 1917 The Flying Aces of World War I Eddie Rickenbacher, US Francesco Barraco, It. Eddie “Mick” Mannoch, Br. Willy Coppens de Holthust, Belg. Rene Pauk Fonck, Fr. Manfred von Richtoffen, Ger. [The “Red Baron”] The Zeppelin Flame Throwers Grenade Launchers Poison Gas Machine Gun The Western and Eastern Fronts: World War I The Widening War British and Empire forces attack the Ottoman Empire Campaign to seize control of straits failed at Gallipoli in 1915 British and Arab allies take Ottoman provinces of Mesopotamia (Iraq), Syria, Palestine and the Arabian peninsula War in the Far East Japan takes German lands in the Western Pacific and China War and the New World Germany’s blockade of Britain would draw in The United States in April 1917 The Armenian Genocide: Nationalism, Identity and the Horrors of Modern War Ottoman Turkey had been moving to become a modern nation state This compromised its rule of Arab Muslims Control over Christian Armenians particularly tenuous. Armenians blamed for losses to Russia Turkish generals assaulted Armenian populationPopulation rounded up for a forced march to Syria- up to a million dies Ethnic cleansing became a model for asserting sovereignty in the 20th century 45 One of thousands of mass Armenian graves Turkish Genocide Against Armenians A Portent of Future Horrors to Come! World War I and the Arab Middle East The Suez Canal would be an important target in both World Wars Russia’s persistent appetite for Turkish territory made it a natural German ally Britain’s attempt to seize Istanbul in 1915 Gallipoli attack a significant failure Britain shifted strategies to make alliances with Turkey’s restive Arab population 49 Britain and Arab Nationalism British operatives courted Arab nationalists in their attempt to defeat the Ottomans Famous Lawrence of Arabia (T.E. Lawrence) as an agent Promise of independence for Arabs who were alienated by Young Turks and Turkish nationalism Helped the British take Jerusalem and Baghdad Post-war land grab in the Arab Middle East by France and Britain a bitter disappointment 50 Zionism and The Balfour Declaration Zionism- a movement of Diaspora Jews to return to their ancestral homeland- a form of nationalism Zionists had been buying land from Palestinian absentee landlords (ayan) Balfour Declaration- Made by British Foreign secretary- promise to promote a Jewish homeland in Palestine after the war- Britian also promised Arab leaders that they would control these lands Arabs saw the British mandate of Palestine a double betrayal “ A land without people for a people without land”Zionist perspective 51 The Breakdown of the Eastern Front: The Fall of the Romanov Family Russia was unprepared militarily and technologically for war Eastern Front much more dynamic than the Western Front Two million soldiers killed six million wounded or captured by 1916 Tsar Nicolas and wife influenced by Siberian mystic Gregory Rasputin- murdered 1916 March 1917- A general strike in Petrograd Army refuses to disperse the crowds Duma (Russian Parliament) urges Tsar to step down New provisional government continues the war Workers and peasants do not support war Committees of workers and peasants Soviets grow in many regions Radical Marxists- mainly lower classes of workers, peasants and dissatisfied soldiers Included Bolsheviks (violent revolutionary Marxists small faction of Russian Marxists) Tsar’s family is exiled and eventually murdered in July 1918 America and Turning the Tide: 1917-1918 1917- A bad year for the Allies Collapse of the Eastern front French exhausted by Verdun and the Somme Italian front collapsing German gamble- risk war with the United States with a blockade of Britain (unrestricted submarine warfare) Germany entices Mexico to declare war on America- The Zimmermann Telegraph America declares war on Germany 6 April 1917 Psychological boost for the allies AEF (American Expeditionary Forces) would not arrive in numbers until 1918 America Prepares for the War to End All Wars America, Germany and Breaking the Stalemate: 1918 Germany commits to a grand offensive in 1918 Move troops from Eastern front Win the war before American soldiers can relieve the allies German attack stalls in July 1918 Allies supported by 140,000 fresh troops Front is still in France and BelgiumStab in the back mythology Two million Americans would lead a counter offensive Wilhelm II abdicates- New socialist government signs armistice 11/11/1918 (Armistice Day) The Armistice and the Victors Peace of Versailles Delegates of victorious powers meet in Paris to create an “eternal Peace”- Versailles focused on war against Germany President Wilson proposed Fourteen Points as a basis for peacemain principles Disarmament Self determination- align regional nationalism with political borders End secret treaties General association of nations Anger and revenge and fear among European allies compromised Wilson’s ideas Disregard for balance of power and claims of great powers Germany to accept blame for the war- payment of reparations Too brutal to forget and too mild to destroy Germany Seeds planted for a larger war in 20 years America disillusioned and withdrew from European affairs Non-European peoples hoped for self determination meant the end of colonial rule- not so Arab territories controlled by France and Britain (Mandate system) German territories taken by France Britain Australia and Japan Colonial empires maintained World War I Casualties 10,000,000 9,000,000 8,000,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 Russia Germany Austria-Hungary France Great Britain Italy Turkey US Managing the Post War World: The 1920’s and the West Germany is isolated and saddled with limitations from Versailles Civil unrest through early 1920’s- hyperinflation and French occupation Last years of decade more peaceful Soviet Union withdrawn from world events to 1930’s France – feared US and Britain’s unwillingness to continue a military alliance Presses Germany hard on Versailles Treaty General peace an prosperity from 1924-1929 Nationalism: Self Determination and the New Europe •What new nations were created at Versailles? From what nations were these territories constituted? •Germany agreed to accept full responsibility for the War. • Payment of reparations to Britain and France. • Demilitarized The Post Versailles World The Experience of War and Illiberal Peace 60 Communist Russia: The Spawn of World War I Germans facilitate the entry of Vladimir Lenin into Russia (Reading 72 What is to be Done?) Three slogans Petrograd soviet seizes the provisional government November 6-7 1917 Russia lost Finland, the Baltic States, Poland and much of the Ukraine Lenin argued that boarders were not relevant- international movement would sweep through Europe Civil War between Reds (Communists) and Whites (antiCommunists) Power turned over to soviets Bolsheviks- Renamed Communists- take control of government Negotiated the end of the war with Germany and Austria- The Treaty of Brest Litovsk Peace, bread and land Worker control of production All power to the Soviets Whites had support of European powers and Japan (over 100,000 troops in 1919) but were politically divided between monarchists and liberals Reds had discipline and a popular program supported by terror Cheka- secret police Revolutionary Terror “To break an omelet, a few eggs must be broken” War Communismseizing private property to defeat enemies By 1921, Lenin’s Communists had established party control over most of the old Romanov Empire The Far East and the Post War Era Japan Japan’s export economy booms with war time demand Four giant Zaibatsu control Japanese industry Japan’s hand in China and the Pacific greatly strengthened Take German territories in China and the Pacific Twenty One Demands on China- Make China a Japanese protectorate Japan’s political and economic interests in China grow China Qing Dynasty ends 1911- Replaced by Sun Yat –sen and Guomindang Party Westernized reform and republican government Opposed by warlords- local anarchy continued. Sun and the Guomindang party bring in Chinese communists Sun dies in 1925- Chiang-Kai shek takes over Guomandang Breaks power of the warlords Splits with Communists in early 1930’s Unable to produce meaningful reforms like Bolsheviks or Meiji emperors World War I and The Future of the Far East ca 1930 Japan is growing militarily and economically European states are weakened by the war China struggles to unify and reform under effective government What do you see happening in the Far East in the 1930’s? The Spanish Influenza: 1918-1919 Movement of people and conditions of camps with crowds of men invited the rapid spread of H1N1 Influenza virus. First wave in Spring 1918 Aided by modern transportations systems and malnourished populations Killed people in all inhabited continents Estimated to have killed 3-5% of the earth’s population- wiped out entire villages in Alaska and decimated Pacific Islands Second more deadly strain in August 1918 Estimated final toll 50-100 MILLION 64 65 The War and Africa 66 India in the Years between Wars 67 The New Order in the Middle East 68 Egypt in the Post-War Era 69 Dada: Art and the Reaction to the First World War Dada art- Art against art? A rational response to the irrationality of war Otto Dix- German artist and war veteran The punk rock of art The Seeds of its Own Destruction: The End of the European Age The divisions and rivalries that drove the age of European exploration would explode into a “European Civil War” The industrialization and military technology that brought European rule to much of the world would turn on itself to create a war of unprecedented destruction. World Trade would not recover to 1914 levels to The conflict that would follow the assassination of the archduke would help to unravel the myth of European cultural and intellectual superiority (Though Hitler would exalt such myths in his Thousand Year Reich).