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Southwest Asia and North Africa All countries embraced some kind of change. Many parts of the world understood that this is a new world order, except the Arab world. Ammar Abdulhamid Setting the Boundaries Sometimes called the Middle East (a European perspective). Climate, culture and oil resources help define the region. Region is generally arid, Muslim and contains oil but this is not true of all states in the region. early center for agriculture, civilization and major world religions a key global culture hearth: a region that witnesses many cultural innovations that subsequently diffuse to other parts of world Setting the Boundaries Development of petroleum industry has had large impact on the region. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries): Member states profoundly influence global prices and production targets for petroleum. Islamic fundamentalism: the aspect of Islam that advocates a return to more traditional practices, calls for merger of civil and religious authority and challenges encroachment of global popular culture Hebron, West Bank Physical Setting: Life in a Fragile World North African Regional Landforms Maghreb (West Island): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia dominated by the Atlas Mountains strategic straits: Hormuz, Gibraltar, Dardanelles and Suez Sahara with Maghreb in background Physical Setting: Life in a Fragile World Southwest Asian Regional Landforms more mountainous than North Africa Levant: eastern Mediterranean region of Southwest Asia, has mountains and highlands Anatolia: peninsula of Turkey (Asia Minor) is a geologically active plateau Mesopotamia: Iraq, between Tigris and Euphrates rivers Physical Setting: Life in a Fragile World Managing Water Large portions of the region are arid. Exceptions: peripheral regions of Turkey, northwestern section of Iran, northern Morocco and Algeria, numerous oases, several great river valleys hydropolitics: interplay of water resource issues and politics fossil water (paleowater): groundwater that has remained sealed in an aquifer for a long period of time ... Water can rest underground in fossil aquifers for thousands or even millions of years. choke point: a point of congestion or blockage Saudi Arabian Irrigation Physical Setting: Turkey, Iraq and Syria, A Case Study Since 1975, Turkey’s extensive dam and hydropower construction has reportedly reduced water flows into Iraq and Syria by approximately 80% and 40% respectively. Approximately 90% of the water flow in the Euphrates and 50% in the Tigris originate in Turkey. Low flow rates in Iraq have allowed salt water to infiltrate nearly 150 km inland from the Persian Gulf. Lack of any international agreement has hampered progress on a deal between Turkey, Iraq and Syria. Turkey has accused Iraq of poor water management practices, which, it says, are exacerbating Iraq’s water crisis. Tensions between these states remain high because of the issue of water management. Physical Setting: Life in a Fragile World 9 out of 14 Southwest Asian states face watershortage conditions (the most concentrated region of scarcity in the world). Hydropolitics in the Jordan River Basin Physical Setting: Southwest Asia’s and North Africa’s Climate Complex climate region due to altitude and latitude Large portions of the region are arid. Deserts stretch from the Atlantic Coast across Africa, through the Arabian Peninsula and into central and eastern Iran. Three types of desert: hamada (rock), reg (stone), erg (sand) Mediterranean climates in the Atlas Mountains and the Levant coastline are caused by altitude and latitude. Physical Setting: Environmental Issues in Southwest Asia and North Africa A long history of human settlement in a marginal land has left its mark on the environment. deforestation and overgrazing salinization: buildup of toxic salts in soil from centuries of irrigation, hundreds of 1000s of acres of farmland degraded managing water: Iran’s qanat system (process of tapping into groundwater by a series of gently sloping tunnels) and Libya’s Great Man-Made River (draws underground fossil water 600 miles to irrigate crops in the north of the state) tap groundwater. Egypt’s Aswan High Dam generates electricity. Socotra’s Dragon’s Blood Tree Atlas Mountains Jordan Valley Physical Setting: Environmental Issues in Southwest Asia and North Africa Increasingly difficult ecological problems in the decades ahead Physical Setting: Climate Change in Southwest Asia and North Africa temperature changes sea-level changes political and economic costs Alexandria, Egypt Population and Settlement: Patterns in an Arid Land more than 400 million people in the region Physiological densities are among the highest on Earth. physiological density: the number of people per unit of arable (suitable for growing crops) land Population and Settlement: Patterns in an Arid Land intimate tie between water and life Dry areas are sparsely settled. Moist lands may be overpopulated. two dominant population clusters: (1) Maghreb (moister areas of Atlas Mountains) and coastal regions Population and Settlement: Patterns in an Arid Land Satellite image of the Nile Valley two dominant population clusters: (2) Egypt’s Nile River Valley: 70 million Egyptians live within 10 miles of the Nile. Population and Settlement: Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns Different kinds of agriculture are practiced in different regions, depending largely on the environment. domestication: plants and animals selectively bred for desirable characteristics, began in this region 10,000 years ago Fertile Crescent: ecologically diverse zone, from Levant through fertile hill state of northern Syria into Iraq ... Nile-EuphratesTigris Region pastoral nomadism: traditional form of subsistence agriculture that depends on seasonal movement of livestock transhumance: seasonal movement of livestock from winter to summer pastures man at livestock market in UAE Population and Settlement: Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns oasis: area where high groundwater or deep-water wells provide reliable moisture (small agricultural settlements, trade centers) exotic river: river that comes from a humid area and flows into a dry area that otherwise lacks streams, can support irrigation kibbutz: collective community in Israel that is traditionally based on agriculture and produces grain, vegetable and orchard crops, irrigated by the Jordan River and feeder canals oasis agriculture in Morocco The Euphrates: an exotic river Population and Settlement: Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns The Challenge of Dryland Agriculture depends on seasonal moisture mostly in Mediterranean area crops: tree crops, livestock, grains, illegal hashish Population and Settlement: Many-Layered Landscapes: The Urban Imprint urban and rural landscapes very different Some of the world’s oldest urban areas are in this region. A Long Urban Legacy Earliest cities in Mesopotamia (Eridu and Ur 3500 BCE) and Egypt (Memphis and Thebes 3000 BCE). Rise of trade centers around 2000 BCE. centers of political and religious authority centers of Islamic religious administration and education medina: original urban core of a traditional Islamic city, has central mosque and bazaar (Fes, Morocco) Colonialism left European influence. Old City, Fes, Morocco Population and Settlement: Many-Layered Landscapes: The Urban Imprint Signatures of Globalization Urban centers have become focal points of economic growth (Cairo, Algiers, Istanbul). Oil wealth has added modern element to traditional cities (Dubai). Tehran, Iran Contrasts in Dubai, United Arab Emirates Population and Settlement: A Region on the Move Migration Streams rural-to-urban migration job-related migration within the region: More than 75% of Saudi Arabia’s workers are foreign. immigration of low-wage workers from other regions emigration of workers from the region to other places (Turkish guest workers in Germany) Population and Settlement: A Region on the Move Population and Settlement: Shifting Demographic Patterns Population growth rates vary within the region. Women in Tunisia, Iran and Turkey are having fewer children. causes: delayed marriage, family planning initiatives, greater urbanization high rates of natural increase in West Bank, Gaza and Libya Increasing population strains cities, water supplies, public services, job availability. Population and Settlement: Iran, A Case Study Iran has experienced one of the world’s most precipitous birthrate declines, its total fertility rate falling from 6.52 in 1982 to 1.67 in 2010. This drop has led the Iranian government to another uturn in family planning: the pro-natalist policy initiated after the Islamic Revolution of 1979 was replaced by a family-planning agenda in 1989, but now large families are again encouraged. Teheran officials, who have spearheaded a door-to-door campaign to spread a health education propaganda drive, want to spark a baby boom that would double the Iranian population to about 150 million. No less than 150,000 health workers have mobilized for the ambitious project, literally knocking on the doors of homes to encourage single-child families to have more offspring. The billboard reads: "One flower does not make Spring. More children a happier life." Population and Settlement: Turkey, A Case Study The fertility decline in Turkey has not been as steep as that of Iran, but it has been steady, the total fertility rate falling from 4.57 in 1979 to 2.06 in 2011. As in Iran, the state’s government is not pleased. Himself a father of four, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Erdogan has urged married couples to have at least three children, pushing his message bluntly on every platform -- from casual chats and wedding ceremonies to party meetings and diplomatic occasions. Arguing that a larger, youthful population will help propel Turkey into the world’s top 10 economies, he has vilified past policies of family planning and made bizarre warnings of plots to wipe the Turkish state off the global stage. Recently, he upped the bar even higher, calling for four or five children. Turkish Prime Minister Recep Erdogan Population and Settlement: Turkey, A Case Study One of the reasons why Erdogan is so concerned about the Turkish fertility decline is its geographical imbalance. In the more prosperous western regions of the state, the fertility rate is now roughly 1.5 and falling, whereas in the Kurdish-speaking southeast it is roughly 3.5 and perhaps rising. Consequently, Turkey is facing a demographic time bomb -- Kurds, who tend to be concentrated in the state’s impoverished southeast and are generally poorer and less educated, could outnumber Turks within 30 years if present patterns persist. Despite the dreams and plans of the Turkish and Iranian governments, it seems highly unlikely that pro-natalist policies will result in a return to the high birth-rates of the past. Population and Settlement: Population Indicators Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Signatures of Complexity relative location: a physical (trade, migration), cultural, religious crossroads cultural landscape dominated by both history and colonial powers ... new landscapes neo-colonial in nature colonial influence: Italy, France, Britain NBC’s Richard Engel travels to the legendary city of Timbuktu, which is cradled within one of West Africa’s poorest nations Roman aqueduct near Caesarea Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Petra, Jordan First inhabited in 6th century BCE. important trade crossroads in desert area Complex canals and cisterns concentrated water. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Signatures of Complexity issues: fundamentalism vs. tolerance, theocracy vs. democracy, traditional vs. modern gender issues: literacy, reproductive rights, position within religious structures and politics intersection of ethnic and religious differences cultural diversity religion -- shared Holy Lands language The words and pictures carved into the stone describe a great famine on the Egyptian island of Sahel. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion hearth of the Judeo-Christian tradition Jews and Christians trace their roots to the eastern Mediterranean. Judaism: founded approximately 4000 years ago by the patriarch Abraham, who led his followers from Mesopotamia to the shores of the eastern Mediterranean Christianity: based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who gathered followers in the area of Palestine about 2000 years ago ... taught that there is only one God, whose relationship to humanity is one of love and support, but who will judge those who do evil monotheism: belief in one God Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion emergence of Islam: originated in Southwest Asia, 622 CE in the Judeo-Christian tradition, sharing many of the same prophets, including Abraham, Moses and Jesus Quran: Koran, believed by Muslims to be a book of revelations received by Muhammad from Allah (God), representing God’s highest religious and moral revelations Islam means submission to the will of God Schism in Islam after Muhammad’s death Shi’ite Muslims: favored passing power within Muhammad's family Sunni Muslims: favored passing power through established clergy Muhammad's successor was chosen in Medina. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion most Muslims are Sunni Iran is a Shi’ite Islamic theocracy theocratic state: state where religious leaders (ayatollahs) guide policy ... church and state are combined Five pillars of Islam shahada: testify to God's One-ness (testimony of faith: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.”) salat: pray five times daily facing Makkah (Mecca) zakat: give charitable contributions to support the needy sawm: fast from dawn until sundown during month of Ramadan hajj: make a religious pilgrimage to Makkah in the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar (see image). Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion The expansion of the Ottoman Empire helped to spread Islam. Ottoman Empire: vast empire of Turks, included most of Southwest Asia and North Africa, as well as Southeastern Europe (circa 1453) Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion modern Islamic diversity Muslims majority in region, except in Israel and Cyprus. Sunni: majority (73%) Shi’ite (Shia - followers of Ali): dominant in Iran, southern Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan and Bahrain (23%) Sufism: (the inner, mystical dimension of Islam, belong to a different order with different teachers than non-Sufi Muslims) in Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Egypt and Turkey Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion modern Islamic diversity Wahhabism: (fundamentalist branch of Sunni Islam that labels Muslims who disagree as apostates, prefer the name Salafi ) the official religion of the royal Saud family and of Saudi Arabia, where its teachings are state-sponsored and funding from petroleum exports used to build madrassas (schools with “heavy dose of religious instruction”) throughout the world Druze: (distinct and secretive Abrahamic theology) is one of the major religious groups in the Levant (where they play a large political role) and found primarily in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel ... social customs differ markedly from those of Muslims or Christians and they form close-knit, cohesive communities but are also known for their loyalty to the states they reside in ... Arab but disagreement on whether or not Muslim Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Religion The region must deal with the basic inconsistencies between Western civilization and more fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, as well as with finding a lasting solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jerusalem’s Old City includes sites sacred to Jews, Christians and Muslims. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Language In non-Arab states, indigenous languages dominate. Semites and Berbers Arabic and Hebrew (Semite) Berber in Atlas Mts. and Sahara Persians and Kurds Indo-European languages Persian in Iran Kurdish in northern Iraq, NW Iran, eastern Turkey The Turks Altaic language: more Turkic speakers in Central Asia Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Patterns of Globalization Islamic Internationalism: Global Muslim population Islamic communities well-established in central China, European Russia, central Africa, southern Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, elsewhere Muslim congregations expanding in urban areas of western Europe and North America. Globalization and Cultural Change Global economy is having impact on traditional cultural values ... hybrid forms of popular culture technology: Access to satellite TV, cell phones, the internet bring global culture to the region. Fundamentalism is one reaction. watching films is a favorite pastime, southwest Algeria Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Colonial Legacy: European colonialism came late to the region. dominance of Ottoman Empire widespread European colonialism after WWI many political boundaries set by colonial powers Imposing European Power French in Algeria since 1800 ... later in Tunisia, Morocco, Syria and Lebanon Britain in Arabian Peninsula and Persian Gulf by 1900 ... Suez Canal: British-engineered canal linking Mediterranean and Red seas in 1869 European banks influence Egyptian economy. British instrumental in establishing Saudi Arabia. Italians in Libya, Spanish in Morocco Turkey, Iran (Persia) never occupied Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Decolonization and Independence Europeans began to withdraw before WWII. By 1950 most states were independent. Algerian independence in 1962 Modern Geopolitical Issues Troubled Iraq born in colonial era, carved from British Empire in 1932 many different groups: Shiites, Sunnis, Kurds, Marsh Arabs US has had troops in Iraq ... conflict continues Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Modern Geopolitical Issues Politics of Fundamentalism originated in Iran, 1978–1979 when Shi’ite clerics (Khomeini) overthrew Shah. Sudanese fundamentalists overthrew democracy in 1989. Instability in Saudi Arabia Saud family (conservative monarchy) controls state no democratic reforms home to radical Wahhabi Muslims (15 of 19 9/11 hijackers were Saudi) foreign workers, US military presence The House Of Saud Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Modern Geopolitical Issues Conflicts Within States Religion and governance have resulted in terrorist insurgencies in Egypt, Israel and (to a lesser extent) Iran, Iraq and Turkey. Ethnic differences, particularly Kurdish issues, have resulted in oppression in Northern Iraq and Turkey. Lebanon: conflict among Sunni and Shiite Muslims and Christians ... result of spread of Palestinian refugees in region Cyprus: conflict between Greece and Turkey green line: demarcation set up by UN peacekeepers that divides the capital of Nicosia in Cyprus Violence in Syria Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Modern Geopolitical Issues Iranian Geopolitics Islamic Revolution 1979 (see image) Supports other Shi’ite Islamists oil and gas reserves nuclear development reformers among Iran’s educated middle class Arab-Israeli Conflict - see next slide An Uncertain Political Future international political relations remain complex Israel, Turkey are US allies; Iran, Syria oppose US. Oil will play a role. ongoing conflicts: Israeli-Palestinian relations, Iran’s nuclear ambitions, Iraq Geopolitical Framework: Arab-Israeli Conflict original home and religious hearth of Jews 70 CE: Romans destroyed Temple and Jews fled. 312 CE: Christianity was dominant in Roman Empire. By 630 CE: Mohammad was the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia. 632 CE: Mohammed died, followed by rapid expansion of Islam. Around 700 CE: Islam became dominant religion ... Jews were a minority people. World War I: Allies offered independence to the Arabs if they revolted against the Turks. British promised a national homeland to the Jews in the Balfour Declaration. Evolution of Israel West Bank Geopolitical Framework: Arab-Israeli Conflict After World War II, the United Nations divided the region into two states: one mostly Jewish one mostly Muslim 1948: creation of Israel result: multiple wars with neighboring states ... 1956, 1967 (Israel gained most land), 1973 intifada (1987): Palestinian uprisings protesting Jewish settlements construction of wall around settlements a new source of tension ongoing conflict between Israelis and Palestinians Jewish settlement, West Bank Geopolitical Framework: Arab-Israeli Conflict 1948: 1st Arab-Israeli War 1956: Suez Crisis 1967: Six-Day War 1973: Yom Kippur War 1979: Camp David Accords 1982: 1st Lebanon War 2002-2005: undeclared war 2006: 2nd Lebanon War 2010-present: continued conflict between Israel and Hamas Geopolitical Framework: Arab-Israeli Conflict Golan Heights: return to Syria? Security Zone: return to Lebanon? Israeli Security Barrier Jerusalem: Holy City for whom? a major sticking point West Bank: Palestinian homeland? Palestinians: refugee problem led to the PLO, which led to terrorism Israeli settlements in the West Bank Arab/Islamic disruption: impact of extremist groups ... both sides could be seen as terrorists Geopolitical Framework: Persisting Tensions Geopolitical Framework: Change Others in the region, if they’ve been spared so far, will no doubt start to feel insecure as many rulers in the region are seen as illegitimate, corrupt or unwanted in some way. Geopolitical Framework: Arab Spring The Arab Spring refers to the recent revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world. Since December, 2010 there have been revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt; a civil war in Libya; civil uprisings in Bahrain, Syria and Yemen; major protests in Algeria, Jordan, Morocco and Oman. Protesters were generally young people, who used social media, such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube, to organize, communicate and raise awareness despite their governments’ attempts at censorship. Geopolitical Framework: Arab Spring Many demonstrations have met violent responses from government authorities, as well as from pro-government militias. During this period of regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at the end of their current terms. Some leaders struck back with military violence and suppression. The outside world has also become involved in the events of the Arab Spring . Numerous factors led to the protests, but most focused on the overthrow of authoritarian (total power, the opposite of democracy/representative government) leaders. In all states, there were accusations of human rights violations, government corruption, unemployment, extreme poverty … and a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth. Geopolitical Framework: Arab Spring The catalysts for the revolts in Northern African and Persian Gulf states have also been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats (authoritarian leaders) in power for decades. In recent decades rising living standards and literacy rates, as well as the increased availability of higher education, have created internet-savvy youth in these states. Some people in the region are conflicted by these events. They want the freedoms and advantages that come from democracy but they are concerned with the influence that Western cultural values have on the traditional values of the region (hijab vs. traditional dress, male authority vs. women’s rights, etc). Geopolitical Framework: Arab Spring 2012: change of government Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen leaning toward becoming theocracies 2012-13: protests in Bahrain 2011-16: pro-democracy protests escalated into civil war between forces loyal to and opposed to Syria dictator al-Assad, eventually expanding to include anti-Assad Sunni forces, alAssad’s Shia sect, the jihadist group Islamic State (IS) and several regional and world powers. 2013: France assisted Mali in driving out fundamentalist Islamists from the north 2011: 20-year civil war in Sudan ended, South Sudan became an independent state Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty The region has faced difficulty and high costs in trying to expand its limited supplies of agricultural land and water resources amid fast-growing populations. In addition to domestic use, there is major competition for water for industrial and agricultural uses. Infrastructure is important. desalinization projects in the Gulf Aswan Dam Project (see image) Lake Nasser Nile Waters Agreement (Egypt and Sudan) Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty uneven development: extremely rich and poor states co-exist ... even within states, such as Israel, uneven development has been devastating uneven resource distribution: oil producing states have little water, states with access to water have few wealth-producing resources Future economic development linked closely to regional peace ... Foreign direct investment depends on peace. Economic and Social Development: Impact of Oil high incomes modernization industrialization regional disparities foreign investment in region investment in foreign states environmental problems United Arab Emirates Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty oil unevenly distributed in the region Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Libya, Algeria contribute significantly to oil production ... Morocco and Sudan have few developed petroleum reserves region has 7% of world’s population, 69% of world’s proven petroleum reserves Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty higher-income oil exporters Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, UAE oil wealth reshaped cultural landscape not all benefit (rural Shi’ite Muslims, foreign workers) lower-income oil exporters Algeria: oil and natural gas are its top exports but political instability remains a problem Iran: has huge oil reserves, but the long war with Iraq (1980-90) and the withdrawal from world trade under its fundamentalist government have lowered living standards Iraq: struggling to develop oil industry Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty prospering without oil: states without oil can prosper (Turkey, Israel) but it usually requires investment, infrastructure and a diversified economy ... things poor states lack and have a great deal of difficulty getting. Israel: highest living standard in the region Turkey: a diversified economy, has seen growth Tunisia: economic reforms Lebanon: potential for prosperity through tourism and telecommunications Israeli High-Tech industry Economic and Social Development: Patterns of Poverty Sudan: economy ruined by civil war Morocco: poorer than Algeria or Tunisia, suffers from brain drain (phenomenon in which brightest young people leave for better jobs in Western Europe) Egypt: prospects unclear, growth in 1990s but large gaps between rich and poor Yemen: poorest state on the Arabian Peninsula, marginal subsistence farming and widespread unemployment Cairo street Economic and Social Development: Patterns of Poverty Palestinians in West Bank and Gaza: political disruptions discourage investment, infrastructure destroyed, ⅔ Palestinians live in poverty, unemployment above 40% Political conflicts have disrupted economic development across the region. Civil wars, conflicts between states and regional tensions have worked against plans for greater cooperation and trade. Houses and apartment buildings under construction in the West Bank city of Ramallah Economic and Social Development: Varied Regional Social Patterns Israel: high living standard but Jewish majority doing much better than Muslim minority. Saudi Arabia: lower figures of social well-being than might be expected. gender issues world’s lowest female workforce participation In some states of the region, women not allowed to work outside of the home or to drive. Iran: women’s roles are changing Libya: modernizing women’s roles a high priority Economic and Social Development: Gender Issues large gaps between male and female literacy educational opportunities for women increasing (although some classrooms are segregated by gender) more orthodox Islamic states limit female participation Saudi Arabia: women not permitted to drive Iran: women wear head scarves (but may also wear Western-style fashions) Many of these limitations, such as fewer political and social rights for women, are cultural traits or laws of individual states and not actually dictates of the Qur’an. changes for women participating in the Arab Spring rebellions pursuing high-level careers Muslim women in Tehran, Iran more visible social positions Economic and Social Development: Development Indicators Economic and Social Development: Global Economic Relationships Region has played critical role in world history and globalization. OPEC’s changing fortunes OPEC no longer controls oil and gas prices globally, but still influences their availability and cost. Saudi Arabia: still dependent on oil and gas 70% of exports are crude oil shipments another 20% are refined petrochemical products (90% total) This region also has natural gas reserves yet to be developed. Most states are attempting to expand their manufacturing sectors. Economic and Social Development: Global Economic Relationships Tourism Ancient historical sites and globally significant religious localities are a large draw. tourist hotels and condos on the Mediterranean ecotourism: tourism directed toward exotic, often threatened, natural environments especially to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife Tourism is a large part of the regional economy in Turkey, Israel and Egypt. effects on visual landscape, physical environment, archeological sites Economic and Social Development: Global Economic Relationships regional and international linkages relationships with the EU critical, Turkey applied for membership in the EU in 1987, but has not been allowed to complete the process as of 2016 Arab League (1945): regional organization of 22 Arab states whose goal is to draw closer the relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general Arab League way the affairs and interests of the Arab states Greater Arab Free-Trade Area (1997): a pan-Arab free trade zone of 14 members of the Arab League Islamic Development Bank (1975): foster the economic development and social progress of its 56 member states and IDB Muslim communities individually as well as jointly in accordance with the principles of Shari'a (Islamic Law) Economic and Social Development: Potential for Change Southwest Asia and North Africa have a cultural landscape dominated by both history and colonial powers, a cultural landscape that the region has found difficult to escape. The wave of change that swept over the region in the Arab Spring of 2011 is an example of how centripetal and centrifugal cultural forces act on a state or region. The political landscape was altered or drastically changed in many states. The impact of these changes will be realized in the years and decades to come. Bahrain's anti-government protests, violently put down in 2011, continue in different forms to this day. The End Dasht-e Kevir (Great Salt Desert), Iran