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Artificial Intelligence
Reasoning
Reasoning
• Reasoning is the process of deriving logical conclusions
from given facts. Durkin defines reasoning as ‘the
process of working with knowledge, facts and problem
solving strategies to draw conclusions’.
• Different types of reasoning is as following
 Deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Abductive reasoning
 Analogical reasoning
 Common-sense reasoning
 Non-Monotonic reasoning
 Inference
Deductive Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning, as the name implies, is
based on deducing new information from
logically related known information. A
deductive argument offers assertions that lead
automatically to a conclusion, e.g.
The color of all crows is black, ABC is a crow so
its color will be black
Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is based on forming, or
inducing a ‘generalization’ from a limited set of
observations, e.g.
–Observation: All the crows that I have seen in my
life are black.
–Conclusion: All crows are black
• Thus the essential difference is that inductive
reasoning is based on experience while deductive
reasoning is based on rules, hence the latter will
always be correct.
Abductive reasoning
• Deduction is exact in the sense that
deductions follow in a logically provable way
from the axioms. Abduction is a form of
deduction that allows for plausible inference,
i.e. the conclusion might be wrong, e.g.
Implication: There is no class if It rains.
Axiom: There is no class
Conclusion: It is raining
Analogical Reasoning
• An analogy is a comparison between two objects, or
systems of objects, that highlights respects in which
they are thought to be similar. Analogical reasoning is
any type of thinking that relies upon an analogy.
An analogical argument is an explicit representation of
a form of analogical reasoning that cites accepted
similarities between two systems to support the
conclusion that some further similarity exists. In
general (but not always), such arguments belong in the
category of inductive reasoning, since their conclusions
do not follow with certainty but are only supported
with varying degrees of strength.
Common-sense and Non-Monotonic
reasoning
• Common-sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning
that uses rules gained through experience or what we call
rules-of-thumb. It operates on heuristic knowledge and
heuristic rules.
• Non-Monotonic reasoning is used when the facts of the
case are likely to change after some time, e.g.
Rule:
IF the wind blows
THEN the curtains sway
When the wind stops blowing, the curtains should sway no
longer. However, if we use monotonic reasoning, this would
not happen. The fact that the curtains are swaying would
be retained even after the wind stopped blowing.
Inference
• Inference is the process of deriving new
information from known information. In the
domain of AI, the component of the system
that performs inference is called an inference
engine.
Rules of inference
• Rules of inference are logical rules that you can
use to prove certain things. As you look at the
rules of inference, try to figure out and convince
yourself that the rules are logically sound, by
looking at the associated truth tables. The rules
we will use for propositional logic are:
• Modus Ponens
• Modus Tolens
• And-Introduction
• And-Elimination
Modus ponens
• “Modus ponens" means "affirming method“.
Note: From now on in our discussion of logic,
anything that is written down in a proof is a
statement that is true.
Modus Ponens says that if you know that alpha
implies beta, and you know alpha to be true, you
can automatically say that beta is true.
AB
A
B
-Modus Ponens
Modus Tolens
• Modus Tolens says that "alpha implies beta"
and "not beta" you can conclude "not alpha".
In other words, if Alpha implies beta is true
and beta is known to be not true, then alpha
could not have been true. Had alpha been
true, beta would automatically have been true
due to the implication.
And-Introduction and and-Elimination
• And-introduction say that from "Alpha" and
from "Beta" you can conclude "Alpha and
Beta". That seems pretty obvious, but is a
useful tool to know upfront. Conversely, andelimination says that from "Alpha and Beta"
you can conclude "Alpha".
Inference Rules
Link to download CLIPS
• http://sourceforge.net/projects/clipsrules/file
s/CLIPS/6.30/CLIPS_6.30_Beta_Windows_App
lication_Installer_R3.msi/download