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nyumunc viii 1 nyumunc viii Dear Delegates, On the behalf of my entire staff, I would like to welcome you to NYUMUNCVIII. My name is Marvin Passi, and I am tremendously excited to be your chair in the Kingdom of France. Currently, I am a Master’s student at the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences here at NYU studying International Relations with a concentration in International Law and Finance. Having participated in many MUN committees with my French travel team, I’m looking forward to providing you with a well-managed committee. Your crisis director, Maevyn Davis-Rackerby, is a freshman in the College of Arts and Sciences hoping to study International Relations. She loves both history and international politics, and is thrilled to put both her passions to use in providing interesting and exciting crises for you during the conference. History has always played an important role in international politics. As a student in international relations, I can say that all current international conflicts and issues have roots in their country’s respective history, as they all result, on some level, from how their societies were formed and constructed. Currently, France is at a crucial historical point. On one hand, it is a leader in the European Union because of its ethnic diversity and its long history of attempted domination over the rest of Europe and the Middle East. On the other hand, the multiplicity of political, cultural and economic factors make the French situation complex to understand and the issues hard to resolve. Both Maevyn and I hope that trying to solve some medieval French conflicts will help you understand how challenging and complicated the actual situation is. In this committee, you will deal with issues and crises within the Kingdom of France, including the fact that every duke, count and religious leader has a different position on every crisis and topic that we give to you. My staff, Maevyn and I had been passionate about this topic, and we hope that by the end of this committee you will be as well. If you have any questions or concerns, feel free to reach out to us. Have a great time researching, and we are looking forward to meet you in April. Best, Marvin Passi Chair NYUMUNCVIII [email protected] Maevyn Davis-Rackerby Crisis Director NYUMUNCVIII [email protected] 2 nyumunc viii of his reign fighting either “robber barons” who disregarded the King and disrupted civil life through excessive and illegal taxation in Paris or the Norman kings of England over control of Normandy. Despite of this, Louis VI managed to strengthen his power, and became a strong king. In 1109 Louis VI went to war with Henry I of England over the castle at Gisors, an important fortress on the right bank of the Epte river, which had control over the road between Paris and Rouen However, after the first few years of the war, several French barons aligned with Henry, which left a difficult battle against the English monarch. In March 1113, Henry I was recognized as suzerain of Brittany and Maine after the threat of losing Gisors forced Louis VI to sign a treaty. The peace lasted three years until hostilities renewed in April of 1116. History After the death of his father in 1060, Philip I was crowned king at age seven, officially beginning his rule in 1066. In 1077, after years of conflict with William the Conqueror over the Duchy of Brittany, Philip gave up his attempt at conquering and made peace. In 1082, Philip I annexed the Vexin, and in 1100 he took control of Bourges. following his excommunication by the pope in 1094 for repudiating his wife and marrying another woman. The year after, in 1095, the Crusade was launched which had little participation from Philip but heavy involvement from not allowed to participate in, Hugh of Vermandois. Pope Urban II initially launched the Crusade in response the Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, calling for western help in fighting the invasion of the Seljuk Turks from Anatolia. However, the Christian conquest of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, as well as the freeing of the Eastern Christians from Muslim rule, quickly became the Crusade’s main goal. Louis VI, or Louis the Fat, succeeded Philip to establish a centralized royal power: he spent most By 1119, after several victories and the English capture of Les Andelys, Louis felt ready to end the war. That August The Battle of Bremule broke out, in which Louis’ troops broke, abandoned the royal banner, and fled back to Les Andelys.. A failed counter-attack to try and take Breteuil pushed Louis to negotiate for peace again. With the Pope Calixtus II, who met with Henry at Gisors in November of 1120, more peace was negotiated. Eventually, Louis conceded Gisors. In 1127, Charles the Good, the Count of Flanders, was killed in St. Donatian's Cathedral at Bruges. The count had no heir, which led to secession crisis. Louis had William Clito in mind as a candidate, and moved into Flanders and advised the barons to choose himleading to his election by the counsel. To further secure Clito’s position in Flanders, Louis captured Charles the Good’s murderers and ousted the rival claimants. Before he left for France, 1 nyumunc viii Louis witnessed the execution of said killers. This victory showed how far the French Crown had come under Louis VI’s leadership, but it was a short triumph. The new, young Count William imposed heavy handed feudal taxes, a move that didn’t go well with several provinces. the archbishopric of Bourges caused conflict with the Pope when he and the king suggested different candidates. The king supported the chancellor Cadurc and the Pope supported Pierre de la Chatre. In response to this disagreement, the Pope imposed an interdict on Louis VII. The tensions between Henry I and Louis VI increased in November of 1120, when Henry's heir, William Adelin, was one of the nobles who died during the sinking the White Ship on his way to England from Normandy. This incident put Henry’s position and the future of this dynasty in jeopardy. Three years later, Louis was involved with a coalition between Norman and French nobles opposing King Henry. Their plan was to remove the English King and replace him with William Clito--however, Henry defeated them and convinced Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor and his son-in-law, to invade France. Henry V had plans for the coastal region of the Low Countries, and invading Northern France would help his chances. So in 1124, Henry V prepared an army to march on Rheims. However, he had failed to predict that the French barons would support their King and so the proposed invasion was abandoned. The next year, Henry V died. Louis then allowed Raoul I of Vermandois to renounce his wife and marry Petronilla of Aquitaine instead, resulting in a war with Theobald II of Champagne, the uncle of Roul’s denounced wife. As a result, Theobald II allied with the Pope and sided with him in the dispute over the archbishopric of Bourges in a war that started in 1142 and lasted two years. When the royal army moved to occupy Champagne, the town of Vitry-leFrançois was burned to the ground. More than a thousand people died in the town’s church, which also burned in the fire. After this tragedy Louis admitted defeat and ordered his armies to leave Champagne. He also officially recognized Pierre de la Chatre as archbishop, shunning Raoul and his new wife, Petronilla. He felt responsible for the attack on the town, more specifically the casualties from the fire. He declared his intention of mounting what would become known as the Second Crusade on December 25th, 1145 at Bourges to atone for his sins. In 1128, Henry I married his daughter, the Empress Matilda, to the Count of Anjou, Geoffrey Plantagenet. This turned out to be a dangerous alliance for the French, which became evident during the reign of Louis VII, Lous VI’s successor. Like his father, Louis VII strove for a centralized government. Right before his death his father married him to Eleanor of Aquitaine, an incredibly wealthy and powerful woman. Eleanor gave Louis the vast Duchy of Aquitaine as a dowry, which extended the French lands to the Pyrenees. In 1144, while this was happening, the Count of Anjou, Geoffrey V conquered Normandy, in an action that would cause tension for some time. In exchange for being recognised by Louis as Duke of Normandy, Geoffrey gave him half of the Vexin region, which was crucial to Norman security. In June 1147, Louis VII and Eleanor set out from the Basilica of St. Denis and headed towards Syria. During his reign, a vacancy in 2 nyumunc viii Government The rule of the Capetian kings of France was long, but lacking in power. The main fault of the earlier kings was a lack appropriate resources or will to control their vassals. To fix this Louis VI introduced an aggressive policy, demanding that his vassals be obedient, and was backed by military force. His son Louis VII furthered his power by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine, which stretched the Crown’s influence to southern France. ● ● ● Conseil du Roi (King’s Council) The King of France took advice from his council before making important decisions. The council was a body composed of trusted advisors to the King that looked over matters concerning the government and royal administration, both during war and peace. ● Composition of the Council: ● Dauphin (The crown prince) ● The “Grands” (Powerful people of the Church and nobility) ● Queen (Consort or mother) – However, the queen began to lose political control and did not often attend council. ● The King’s close relations (Sons, grandsons, princes of the bloodline) – Because of their political ambition, these members were often suspected of plotting against the king. ● ● The Great Officers of the Crown of France: The most important positions in the King’s council were held by the Great Officers of the Crown of France. ● Connétable de France: Also known as the First Officer of the 3 crown, he was the head of all other officers, the highest commander of the French army, and considered second in command to the King. Chancelier: He oversaw the judicial system. Seneschal: An administrative officer in charge matters pertaining to the household, including domestic arrangements and administration of servants. Amiral de France : Commander of the French Navy. Maréchal de France: An honor bestowed upon the most exceptional generals. The Maréchal general des camps et armées du roi (Marshal General of Camps and Armies of the King) was superior to the Marshal of France and held authoritative power over all French armies. Grand Chambrier de France: Manager of the Royal Treasury, with assistance from the Grand Bouteiller (Grand Butler). The Grand Chamberman signed important letters and charters. Grand Chambellan de France : He was initially in charge of the King’s wardrobe, having a particularly important role during coronation cérémonies. He later was additionally responsible for signing royal documents, charters, assisting during peer trials, recording the oath of homage to the Crown, etc. He additionally had keys to the royal apartments. nyumunc viii The council was only constitutional – the final decision was the King’s. The king often did not follow through with the decisions of the council. In the council, the King would sign treaties, receive ambassadors, appoint administrators, and elaborate on ordannances (laws of the realm). General and the Parlements. The States General was a legislative assembly constituting three estates (classes) of French subjects that the King would consult for issues such as fiscal policy and the presentation of petitions. The Parlements acted as the court of the judicial system, comprising of over a dozen judges. They had great power over legislation, specifically regarding taxation. Laws issued by the King were not finalized unless they received the approval of the Parlement. The members of the Parlement were aristocrats (“nobles of the robe”) that were independent of the Crown and received their posts through inheritance. Court of Finances The King had to survive on the revenue made from lands that he directly owned. If necessary, the taille (an exceptional tax) was imposed, usually during times of war. Initially, the King’s council handled all financial responsibility, but by the 12th century, the finances were entrusted with the “Knights Templar” in Paris. They were a Catholic military order, endorsed by the Roman Catholic church. The soldiers who were non-combatant during the Crusade oversaw the economic structure of France, and innovated new banking methods. Economy Trade After the invasions of the 9th and 10th centuries (mostly by Vikings), the Kingdom of France was left alone to recover and begin expanding again. By the end of the 11th century the Rhine valley connected France to England, Flanders and Brabant. Ports increased trade over the water, and trade increased over the longer distance between Byzantine and Venice. The Norman conquests, precursors to the Crusade, occurred late 11th century and thus strengthened the trade routes with Italy, England, and Sicily. In the 12th century, as the population grew and farming technology advanced, the agricultural industry also grew. This was accompanied by massive land clearance by nobles, which also helped to promote the agricultural industry. Thus, agriculture became the main economic industry. Finally, the Crusade not only strengthened trade along its path, but opened the Mediterranean for trade, solidifying even more trade routes and expanding the geographic area of commerce for Prévots Prévots were judges that governed the scattered regions of the royal domain. They implemented royal power locally, which encompassed collecting the Crown’s domain-based revenues, taxes, and duties owed. Prévosts also took on the responsibility of military defense, which included raising contingents locally for royal armies. Provosts also carried out judicial procedures, altough to a somewhat limited extent. Over time, provost positions became hereditary, and therefore more difficult for the King to Control. The King arranged for one of his great officers (the Great Seneschal) to supervise them. Other Institutions The country was also governed by other institutions, like the States 4 nyumunc viii the Kingdom of France. After recovering from the invasions and establishing a strong trade system, the French economy was able to expand beyond agriculture. The port cities opened up a wide range of exports, including limestone, which was exported to England for use in building cathedrals. One of the main exports, mainly through Flanders, became finished fabrics--heavier wools for England, lighter wools to Spain and Italy, and linens and mixed cloths to Germany, using wool imported from England. The invention of the horizontal loom in the 11th century allowed for the industrialization of weaving, and a profitable textile industry sprung up. Factories opened (with mostly male workers), and the goal of weaving became more exports than domestic uses. Other notable imports included wine from the Rhinelands. distrustful of a new coinage, afraid that it might destroy what little wealth they had and allow lords to cheat them out of money. Thus, the transition from the unstable denier to a standard royal currency was a slow one, and the 12th century was a transition time to the royal currency that would eventually become the most important currency in France. As the coin stabilized, so did the economy, until the economy was very coinage-based. Taxation The Kingdom of France was, at first, expected to be somewhat self sufficient--that is, the king should gain income from his lands and possessions instead of a direct and increasing taxation from his subjects. However, in Europe overall, the 12th century was the beginning of a transition to new taxing systems as the King needed more money to support military and bureaucratic expansion. as well as due to an increase in war costs. the gradual shift from compulsory military service to payments known as “shield payments” or scutage. Eventually, these taxes shifted even further to allow the people to vote on their taxes, a so called “consensual tax” system. In the years leading up to 1147, however, France was just beginning this transition. The King’s revenue, although beginning to slowly shift, was still rooted in the feudal system and the income from crown lands. The Denier The gold coin was a standard in the Kingdom of France up until the eighth century, when it disappeared. Efforts to revive it and reinstitute a gold system failed. With the disappearance of the gold coin, the silver denier (introduced by Charlemagne in the seventh century) became the main currency in the Kingdom of France, replacing the last of the gold trientes. While the denier was minted across the kingdom, it's worth varied from mint to mint, and therefore so did the amount of money in a pound. From major city to major city the currency could change, meaning that in every transaction, the denier had to be converted to its local equivalent. This caused significant instability which, by the 11th century, became an issue, especially with the increasing geographic spread and sheer amount of trade and commerce. However, even with the push for a more stable currency people were Socioeconomic and Feudal System The Kingdom of France had a strong class system. The upper-class bourgeoisie, or bourgs, came from mercantile communities built up right outside the large fortified areas who. pursued independent urban development and government. High or noble birth was also very important in socioeconomic status, and often 5 nyumunc viii determined eligibility for certain orders. The lower classes were ostracized or ended up as vassals under feudal tenures. Emerging in the 11th century the Kingdom of France also functioned under a strong feudal system, in which many vassals work land and cultivate agriculture belonging to a lord. Vassals owed their lord “aid and service.”; mostly as military service, but also any type of tax or payment paid by a vassal to their lord. It was through this system that lords gained most of their income, and, before the industrialization that resulted from increasing trade rates and the cease of invasions, it was the source of their agriculture. the most experienced body of the army regarding warfare, and likewise, its loyalty to the king was the greatest. The general militia, however, was consisted of drafted men. These were only available for a short period of time and did not feel the same loyalty to the king. Medieval warfare was therefore essentially defined by the strategical use of the cavalry. The strength and the speed of this “elite” foce would settle the outcome of a battle. Once it was over, the rest of the ost was in charge of sieging the captured city, which was their official military directive. In the early Middle Age, the military technology could not allow the armies to break the walls and other defenses of a well-fortified city, but when the city would finally surrender, the King could choose to plunder the city in order to reward its troops or ask for its loyalty in order to gain more vassals. Other than this overall military structure, it has been hard for historians to find documentation that would give an accurate number regarding the size of the armies. Military Through the centuries, the Kingdom of France was defined by a quasi-constant state of war. Those recurring conflicts influenced the evolution of the military structure. Until the 12th century the ost, the “the Royal Army”, was predominantly made of cavalrymen and officers of the court whom were chosen to be part of the “Military House of the King”, later to become the “Bodyguard”. Their mission was to ensure the security of the King from his rivals or isolated threats, with the King possessing no standing army. In order to increase the size of his ost, the King turned to his vassals. Each Lord who had promised loyalty to the King would contribute to the Royal Army by providing knights and foot soldiers. At first, under the Carolingian dynasty, the foot soldiers obeyed to a military draft that lasted the time of a military campaign. But during the 12th century, the length of this military draft was reduced to 40 days, which became the norm for the vassals. At that point, the calvary was considered The Navy The royal territory was not bordered by water until the territorial extensions of the late 12th century. Hence there was no proper royal navy until the end of the 13th century, which meant that all of the conflicts (including the Crusade) was on land. The Crusades The Crusade was the first attempt to capture the Holy Land, called by Pope Urban II in 1095. This crusade was launched by the Christians in response to the Turks blocking access to Jerusalem. Although the king could not participate, several lords did. At least 14 different duchies and counties led by Knights responded to the call of the Pope and left Europe to conquer Jerusalem in 1096. This call also unwillingly 6 nyumunc viii Territorial Disputes launched the “People’s Crusade,” when over 15,000 pilgrims led by Peter the Hermit left Europe to the Byzantine Empire. Over 25,000 arrived at their first destination. However, due to a lack of military experience, they were quickly killed by the Turks. Only 3,000 remained to later join the actual Crusade. This prelude was characterized by its lack of coordination with other authorities of Europe and the rising of anti-semitism. The Kingdom of France was one of the largest kingdoms in Medieval Europe, with an estimated population of six million in the year 1000 (for comparison, England at that point only measured two million). These six million people were spread amongst duchies, sovereign territories governed by dukes and fairly independent, but still vassals of the king. Such lords and dukes often caused problems and often became nearly as powerful as the king himself. Although England was smaller in population. Throughout the 12th century, there was continuing conflict with England and the Kingdom of France over land disputes and exchanges throughout the region. In fact, of the five major duchies of the time, nearly all of them were involved in some kind of dispute or tension around the early to late 1140s. As already noted the French royal power was fragile, especially at the time of the Crusade. There was a daily struggle between the King and the various lords, barons, and other nobles to actually have the royal power recognized. The King’s power depended more on compromise than coercive force. A lack of political and military hierarchy allowed for the Crusade to fragment significantly. Four main Lords from different regions of Europe led their armies in order to conquer. Combining all their forces together, approximately 35,000 crusaders took part in the Crusade. The relationship between the Byzantine Empire and the crusaders quickly became complex. Initially, they were supposed to defend Byzantine from Turkish invasion, turned their attention to conquering new territories for themselves. One of the main leaders of this expedition was Godfrey of Bouillon, who finally succeeded in conquering Jerusalem but refused to be crowned King of the city out of respect for Jesus Christ. In the Kingdom of France, the King was perceived as weak at the end of the 11th century, but the in the 12th century, Louis VI rose and significantly increased France’s power and strength. Duchy of Aquitaine The Duchy of Aquitaine, originally under Charlemagne control, had separated into a sovereign state via a string of Poitiers dukes, at one point even being classified as a kingdom in its own right. These dukes, especially the Williams, also continually expanded Aquitaine,adding Gascony and Toulouse,until it was incredibly large and powerful territory, albeit one that fluctuated in exact area several times over the century. In 1137, the current duke William X died, leaving his vast amount of lands to his 15-yearold daughter, Eleanor. She was placed under the care of king Louis VI of France and, within the same year, was married to his son Louis VII. A few months after that Louis VI died, leaving Eleanor of Aquitaine and Louis VII the crown king and queen of the Kingdom of France. Thus, the lands of Aquitaine officially became a part of the Kingdom of France. Over the next decade leading to 1147, Eleanor bore 7 nyumunc viii Louis no sons. However, the territory of Aquitaine was tied to her name. Thus, despite tension for lack of an heir, their marriage--and the royal control of Aquitaine--remained intact. themselves, including the Kingdom of France, who longed to have Brittany back in its control again. Duchy of Burgundy Stemming from the original Kingdom of Burgundy, the duchy of Burgundy had grown to an impressive size by the time France gained control of it, through succession, in 1002. Duke Henry I died, leaving the land to his nephew Robert the Pious, King of France. However, this upset his stepson, the Roman Otto-William, who was the intended heir. In 1003 Robert invaded Burgundy, with the help of Richard II of Normandy. This led to an extended conflict between France and the Roman Empire over Burgundy. Eventually, Rome backed out of the clash, and although Burgundy remained technically imperial it also maintained strong French connections. Eventually, France managed to take it back fully into Capetian control, the broken off piece of Auxerre going straight into complete royal control. Although in 1147 Burgundy was a fairly stable part of France, this battle and dispute is etched into their history. Duchy of Normandy In the late 10th century, the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte was struck between West Francia and the vikings to create the sovereign Duchy of Normandy. Though independent and under the control of dukes, it was still a part of the Kingdom of France though the beginnings of the Capetian dynasty. Thus began Normandy’s tumultuous history regarding French and English control. In 1035, after William the Conqueror's Norman conquest of England, it fell under the control of Norman dukes. After several failed attempts on the part of King Louis IV to regain it (a failed invasion in 1119), it was finally fully captured by Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou in 1145, during his six-year conquest of Normandy.Although Geoffrey Plantagenet was French, Normandy was more sovereign than it was royal lands. In the years that followed tensions remained high, as King Louis kept his sights on regaining the territory. Disagreement over Gisors Gisors, an incredibly strategically important piece of land and castle between England and France, was also frequently disputed. In 1119, King Louis claimed Gisors for his own. Henry retaliated quickly and swiftly, and a conflict began. Eventually Louis backed down and signed a treaty conceding control of Gisors over to Henry and England. This didn’t last long, however, before King Louis violated the peace treaty and marched on a nearby English town. Thus resumed the fairly violent conflictuntil the pope met with the two kings at Gisors to negotiate peace in 1120. All lands taken were to be returned, all prisoners to be released. Gisors returned to its neutral, pre- Duchy of Brittany Unlike the other duchies, Brittany’s past was solidly Gaelic. Creating a cultural separation. Brittany made its way out of Viking control to French control before breaking off nearly entirely. For much of the 10th century it was ruled by Alan Barbetorte, who went so far as to call himself a king. After Alan’s death in 952, however, Brittany had a secession crisis and fell victim to all its surrounding territories. For centuries after that, including the 12th, Brittany had no strong ruler. The duke payed homage to Normandy, but all the surrounding states still wanted it for 8 nyumunc viii conflict state. Although also not an active conflict, the territorial dispute here was a historical event, and both states still, in 1147, have their eye on claiming Gisors for themselves. interpretation of Islam. Bernard of Clairvaux was called upon to combat heresy by Pope Eugene III, one of his disciples. In 1145 he travelled to Southern France to strengthen the support against heresy. Because of his work, the Henrician and Petrobrusians faiths began to die out by the end of the year. Religion During the Middle Ages, the Arab-Islamic spread led to significant changes along the Mediterranean. Many of the Muslim troops during the Islamic spread originated in Berber, and also that there were Muslim communities in Nimes, practicing alongside the Christians. On May 8th, 1147 a mob attacked the Jews on the second day of Shavuot (Pentecost) in Rameru, France. Rabbenu Tam was one of the mob's victims. After being stabbed five times, to match the five wounds of Jesus, he was saved by a passing knight. His house was ransacked, however, and a Torah scroll was destroyed. He was one of the most renowned Ashkenazi Jewish rabbis, a leading halakhic authority in his generation, and one of Rashi’s grandsons (Rashi was a widely respected medieval French rabbi). Ashkenazi Jews were a Jewish diaspora population in the Holy Roman Empire at the time. Rabbenu Tam was known for his communal enactments improving family life, education, and women's status in the Jewish community. His death, understandably, upset many. In 1143, 150 Jews were murdered in Ham, France. In the town of Carentan the Jews defended themselves, but in the end were defeated too. A year later, Louis VIII condemned falsely converted Jews to die. Regardless, the general position of tolerance towards Judaism in France still continues, with not all Jews were affected by the King’s decree. Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, urged Louis VII to hate the Jews but not kill them, instead to punish them in a more fitting way than death. He was a part of many significant religious councils of his time, like the Council of Pisa (1134) and the Council of Reims (1147), and defended the French theologian Peter Abelard after his Trinitarian interpretation was condemned by the Council of Sens. He managed to mitigate the sentence of the council and reconcile Abelard with St. Bernard of Clairvaux, his hardest critic. Peter also participated in a translation project that included the first-ever translation into Latin of the Qur'an, and thanks to this translation the West had its first instrument to study Islam, dwith his negative but tolerant The English Anarchy In 1120, the sinking of the White Ship led to the sudden death of King Henry I of England’s only legitimate son and heir, William. Five years later, in 1125, Henry V of the Roman Empire died as well, leaving behind a widowed Matilda--Henry I’s only other legitimate child. After some deliberation and a marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou, Henry decided that Matilda would be the heir to his throne, and would succeed him as ruler of England. He went so far as to, in 9 Commented [JC1]: " nyumunc viii 1127, 1128, and 1131, force barons in England and Normandy to take an oath promising to accept her as monarch. This was, however, not popular. Matilda’s womanhood made her an unpopular choice, and her French husband (no matter how rocky the marriage) made the English wary of being ruled by a foreigner. Henry’s sudden death in 1135 destroyed all chances of one of Matilda’s sons becoming heir instead-although she had two, they were both much too young. The oaths were broken or invalidated, Matilda had just been recovering from a possibly deathly illness, and she made no move to return to England and seize her crown. All of this opened up the kingdom to a civil war. Later to be referred to as The Anarchy, the civil war was fought in both England and Normandy (which at this point was still solidly under English control, much to the dismay of King Louis VI), and lasted through the 1140s. lack of strong leadership. His mercenaries followed no laws and he relentlessly tried to build a party around himself, actions which only further alienated the barons. The recruitment of Flemish mercenaries started around 1137, unlike Henry I’s choice of French and British mercenaries during the first crusade. This choice caused tension in the Norman army and mass dropouts, which only hindered Stephen’s rule and campaign. This opened the door for Robert, Earl of Gloucester and Matilda’s half-brother, to come to her aid. In 1138 he went to war with Stephen to defend his sister, and at first Stephen seemed to be winning. However, when he arrested a bishop, he lost both the support and power of the church. Matilda herself finally saw her chance at action and launched a counterattack in 1139, managing to amass nearly half of England in a short period of time. In 1141 Stephen was captured by the Angevins, but a protest in London allowed for his release in exchange for Gloucester. From then on a civil war between Matilda and Stephen raged on. Stephen of Blois Stephen of Blois was the grandson of William the Conqueror, nephew of King Henry I, and cousin to Matilda. After the tragic death of his father, count of Blois in the crusade, Stephen was sent to the English court and raised mostly by his uncle, although he still retained French nobility. Status in 1147 In 1143, there was a stalemate between the two sides after Stephen was defeated by Robert. While there was still fighting, there was also time to pursue other interests for a few years. However, in October of 1147 Robert of Gloucester, one of Matilda’s most avid supporters, died. In 1147 fighting was beginning to slow down, but The Anarchy was still raging on. After his uncle’s death in 1135, Stephen crossed back across the English Channel to take the English crown. Although it had been pledged to Matilda, her lack of action combined with support from various bishops and lords made it easy for Stephen to declare himself the new king. Importance to the Kingdom of France Stephen’s Regime and the Civil War For much of this time, King Louis VI of France tried—and failed-to regain Normandy, and established Stephen’s main fault was in his 10 nyumunc viii himself as a main enemy of King Henry I. He had already placed an ally as the count of Flanders with William Clito-something that led to tensions rising in the first place, due to the now joint opposition of England by both Louis and William. Not only was Stephen from France and heir to Blois, an important piece of Northern France, his appearance as King of England pushed back the Angevin kings-something Louis was desperately trying to do. Stephen in power not only fought back the Angevins, but it stopped the English territory from expanding and encroaching upon the northern parts of France, such as Blois. To Louis, this was the best that could have happened. In fact, in 1136, King Louis VI wrote a testimonial for Stephen of Blois, recommending him for the role of king. From then until the king’s death in 1137, there was a strong agreement between Blois-Chartres, Normandy, and Paris. Count Theobald, another prominent Northern French nobleman, also wrote a letter in support of Stephen of Blois and his rise to the crown. This action brought Theobald and Louis closer together, ending their conflict. By 1141 the civil war was in full swing, and the new King Louis VII was watching it carefully and making his own decisions. There was a new alliance between Angers and Paris, possibly because Geoffrey of Anjou (who, at that point, was conquering Normandy) had offered him the Vexin, a powerful piece of Normandy that the French crown had been wanting back for as long as they had no longer owned it. By 1145, however, the Angevins were moving towards reclaiming Normandy, with a special interest in the Vexin. Wanting to do anything to preserve it, Louis temporarily distracted the Count of Meulan by giving him Gournay-surMarne, then continued to watch the Angevins with unease. Sanitary Environment & Diseases In the Middle Ages, the source of most diseases came from the lack of hygiene, mostly caused by poor medical knowledge of the time. From the 11th to the 12th century, the increase of population in Europe led the peasants to move from the countryside to the cities. The garbage and human waste were piled up in the streets or thrown into the rivers, which spread bacteria and disease and contaminated the water. In the early-to-mid 12th century the streets were not paved, and there were no sewers. To clean the detritus, the pigs who were living in the streets would eat the garbage, further spreading diseases through animals. The access to water was also a crucial aspect for a sanitary environment, one that was somewhat restricted in the Kingdom of France. In Paris, the Church was in charge of building aqueducts to supply the population with clean water. This led to very few public fountains being available (less than 18 in the whole of the city). Undernourishment and lack of hygiene during those days contributed significantly to the spread of epidemics. There were several main diseases that spread and caused problems in the Kingdom of France. Early Plagues The plague was a disease that spread widely, and for a long time, during the medieval period and middle ages. This infectious disease was very easily transmitted through human contact or water and food contamination, and could also be carried by animals. It first appeared during the 6th century as the Plague of Justinian. The Plague of Justinian was 11 nyumunc viii a pandemic that spread through the Byzantine Empire, killing roughly 25 million people from 531 to 580. parades and encouraged the population to go on holy pilgrimages. These pilgrimages were successful, and the monks from the Order of Saint Anthony became famous for them. The success of the pilgrimages actually came from the fact that the pilgrims had to move away from the contaminated cereals, therefore mitigating the symptoms of the disease on the short term. Leprosy Leprosy was an ancient disease that originated in many places, but the Christian crusade of the 11th century aided greatly to its spread. the lepers became a distinctive class of the society:Once suspected of leprosy, a person was considered dead by the family and the Church, a fake funeral was hosted, and the leper was forced to leave in complete isolation from the rest of the society. Excluded and feared by everyone, the leper was forbidden to have any human contact or to share the same water or food as the rest of the people. This terrible disease did not discriminate. It spared no one, not even nobility. For instance, Raoul de Vermandois in the 12th century was a victim of leprosy. Dysentery Dysentery became especially well spread across Europe after the events of the Crusade. In 1098, the crusaders besieging the city of Antioch were decimated by this disease. T after a lack of food and proper sanitation. Doctors In the Middle Ages, diseases were considered the work of God, who sent them as punishment for sins, and healed those afflicted as soon as they ceased the sinning. Because of this, there were very few doctors. There were, however, three distinguished professions of medicine in France that emerged in the 12th century: doctors, surgeons and barbers. They were all trained at either Montpellier and Paris, the only two places in France who taught medicine. Even with the training available, the number of doctors remained low. In fact, there were only about 80 licensed doctors in the entirety of the Kingdom of France. As expected, their primary missions were to treat the plague and leprosy. Very few chirurgical procedures were made, and doctors did not oversee childbirth, leading to an extremely high number of maternal deaths during and after childbirth. Ergotism Known as “Holy Fire” or “Saint Anthony’s Fire” during the Medieval Age, Ergotism is the long-term effect of ergot poisoning. It came from the ingestion of a fungus that infects cereals, and is often spread in the summer when the new crop is harvested. The symptoms of ergotism began with painful seizures, spasms, and diarrhea. Then the gangrene would attack the fingers and toes before spreading to the rest of the body. The disease was called “Holy Fire” because the diseased would feel like their bodies were burning from the inside, their skin falling away and their bones breaking. This epidemic disease strongly hit France during the 11th and 12th centuries in Champagne Limousin, Lorraine , and Cambrai where 12,000 people died. The church took a holy stance in its response to this disease. In order to fight it, the Church started religious International Relations 12 nyumunc viii Europe, consisting primarily followers of Roman Catholicism. After 962, the largest and most prominent kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire was the Kingdom of Germany. Other prominent kingdoms were the Kingdom of Burgundy, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Kingdom of Bohemia. The empire was first ruled by Frankish, then German kings. As the empire was so ethnically diverse, it was never as politically unified as the Kingdom of France was. Instead, it was decentralized, consisting of hundreds of duchies, counties, principalities, Free Imperial Cities, etc. During the Crusade, parts of the Holy Roman Empire (e.g. Germany, Italy), alongside the Kingdom of France, went to Byzantium to aid the Byzantine Empire in regaining their land from the Seljuk Turks. This was part of their efforts to rid the region of Islam and promote Roman Catholicism. However, on defeating the Turks and recovering Nicaea to Byzantium, the Byzantine army retreated, leaving the Holy Roman leaders with a sense of betrayal. Byzantine Empire In 330 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine I chose Byzantium to hold the new Roman Capital, one he named Constantinople. It was ideal due to its location between Europe and Asia, making trade and transit easy. Once Constantine died his Roman Empire split into east and west, and the Byzantine Empire was founded from the east. The members of the Byzantine empire were proud of their Roman and Christian heritage, even calling themselves Romaioi (Romans). Later, because of Persians and Slav invasions, Muslim armies attacked the Byzantine Empire through Syria. The Islamic forces took over Syria, the Holy Land, Egypt, North Africa, and other territories. The Crusade was a holy war between Christians of the West against Muslims in the East. When the Seljuk Turks attacked Constantinople, Emperor Alexius I looked for help from the west, which lead to the the initial declaration of holy war by Pope Urban II at Clermont (France) that started the Crusade. When French, German and Italian armies came to Byzantium to fight against the Turks, Alexius attempted to force the leaders of the armies to swear loyalty to him and ensure that the Byzantine Empire would get back the land taken away from them by the Turks. Once both the Western and the Byzantine armies regained Nicaea from the Turks, Alexius made his army retreat, leading to the rest of the crusaders accusing him of betraying them. The Byzantine territory was less prone to attacks because of its location. Constantinople was located along a strait and shared borders with a lot of Europe, making it hard to get past its defenses. Seljuk Empire The rise of the Seljuk Empire began with migrations during the 10th century, including Turkish people from Central Asia and Southeast Russia. One nomadic tribe was lead by a man named Seljuk. His people settled in the lower portion of the Jaxartes River, and years later converted to the Islamic version of the Sunnite. With the help of Seljuk’s grandsons, the Seljuk people formed an alliance with Persian forces to acquire more land for their own empire. The two grandsons, Chafri and Tugril, controlled a great deal of land-including an empire which then included parts of western Iran and Mesopotamia. After their deaths, the sultans Alp-Arslan and Malik-Shah extended the Seljuk empire over Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. In Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a large group of territories in central 13 nyumunc viii the 11th century, the Seljuk empire won a battle against the Byzantine army and took the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV Diogenes prisoner, giving an opening for Turkish tribes to settle in Asia Minor. The Seljuk empire was known for its ability to restore Muslim unity under their Sunni caliphate, and managed to instate a network of colleges to give training to state administrators and religious scholars. The last trace of the Seljuks were those who died on the battlefield in the early 12th century. During the Crusade the Seljuk Empire was focused its attention on its fragmented states over defeating the crusaders, making it easy for the crusaders coming from Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire to march into Seljuk territory to conquer the city of Nicaea. After countless months of fighting, the Seljuks surrendered. The Crusade army took Nicaea and then made their way to Jerusalem, but were stopped at the city of Antioch, which had been occupied by the Seljuks since 1085. Antioch, a Christian city, was blocking the crusaders’ way to Jerusalem. Both sides fought a long and arduous battle until the Seljuks were defeated. It took years for the Muslim empires to organize a retaliation against the Christian opposition. The Seljuk army and empire was fragmented until Zengi become the chief and took the city of Aleppo without a problem. In the 12th century he focused his vision on the Christian city of Edessa, which was only lightly defended. He took the city and was praised for his brave efforts against the First Crusade but was then assassinated, and his power was handed down to his sons. Persian-Arab soldiers, who seized Muslim lands. Unlike the Umayyads, who were based in Syria, the Abbasids made the executive decision to move the capital to Baghdad. Even though the leaders of the Abbasids were Arab, the intellectual and cultural factors the influenced the caliphate were Persian. The empire's golden age came around the 9th and 10th century, when Baghdad to be the study hub of history, culture and philosophy. Here concepts of basic mathematics, algebra and geometry were studied and written about. The work of Al Khwarizmi was later translated into Persian, Hindu and Greek texts for easy spread in the Muslim lands. His texts also proved to influence Europe especially Greek thinkers like Aristotle. To gain wealth and maintain a stable economy the Abbasid dynasty depended on taxes and military control, but by the 11th century their fragmented political system proved too weak to keep tribes from attacking. In 1055, the Abbasid dynasty lost control of Baghdad to the Seljuk tribe. Although the Seljuks took over power, the Abbasids still ruled their dynasty under their control. While the Seljuks continued to expand toward the west and combat the Crusades, the Abbasid political system weakened, which slowed the scientific and historical enlightenment. Fatimid Caliphate The Fatimid Caliphate was technically under the control Abbasid Caliphate, and fought hard to be seen as a powerful caliphate in its own right, as well as an important state in the Mediterranean region. After years of submission to the Abbasid Caliphate and fighting their own civil war, the Fatimid Caliphate turned its attention to expanding across the Mediterranean Sea. They started with Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Libya in order to threaten the trade paths, then continued by Abbasid Caliphate The history of the Seljuk Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate go hand in hand as they fight for power and land. In the 8th century the dynasty of Umayyad was challenged by an army of 14 nyumunc viii engaging a war in Almeria, Spain. This effectively halted the trade of gold, food, and slaves between the European Empires and the African countries. The Kingdom of France was especially concerned with one war in particular, one the Fatimid Caliphate started against the Byzantine Empire, as it took place in Sicilia. The Duché de Bourgogne sent warriors to the Kingdom’s borders, attempting to stop the Fatimid army from directly attacking. 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