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THEORIES OF LEARNING
“Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.”
B.F. Skinner
“I am always doing that which I cannot do, in order that I may learn how to do it.”
Pablo Picasso
THEORIES OF LEARNING ATTEMPT TO EXPLAIN THE MECHANISM OF
BEHAVIOUR INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES
CONNECTIONIST THEORIES /S-R BOND THEORIES /BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES
COGNITIVE THEORIES /GESTALT- FIELD THEORIES
CONSTRUCTIVST THEORIES
CONNECTIONIST THEORIES
THORNDIKE’S THEORY OF CONNECTIONISM
1. PAVLOV’S THEORY OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2. SKINNER’S THEORY OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
3. HULL’S THEORY OF REINFORCEMENT
COGNITIVE THEORIES
1. LEARNING BY INSIGHT
2. LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY
3. BRUNER’S THEORY OF LEARNING BY DISCOVERY.
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORIES
1. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
2. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY BANDURA
4. SUBSUMPTION THEORY BY AUSUBEL
5. BRUNER’S THEORY OF LEARNING BY DISCOVERY
Thorndike’s theory of Connectionism
Edward Lee Thorndike is an American Psychologist.It also called S-R reinforcement theory
of learning
According to Thorndike through conditioning specific response(R)can be connected to
specific stimuli(S). And this occurs through trial and error. So it is also known as trial and
error learning.
Edward Lee Thorndike:Thorndike’s laws of learning. On the basis of the experiment,
Thorndike put forward the following laws of learning.
Law of readiness
Law of exercise
Law of effect
Law of Readiness
When a conduction unit is ready to conduct , for it to do so is satisfying. When a conduction
unit is not ready to conduct, for it to do so is annoying. When a conduction unit is ready to
conduct, for it not to so is also annoying.
Law of Exercise
It has two parts
Law of use and law of disuse.
Law of use: when a modifiable connection is made between a situation and response that
connection’s strength is, other things being equal , increased.
law of disuse: when a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response,
during the length of time, that connection’s strength decreased.
Law of Effect
when a modifiable connection is between stimulus and response is made and is accompanied
by satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased. When it is accompanied
by annoying state of affairs , its strength is decreased.
Subordinate laws
Law of multiple response: The law implies that confronted with a new situation the learner
responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the correct response.
Law of attitude: The learner performs the task well if he has his attitude set in the task.
Law of analogy: The learner responds to a new situation on the basis of the responses made
by him in similar situations in the past.
Law of associate shifting: The response of the learner shifts with situations.
Educational Implications
Emphasizes the importance of motivation in learning
It stresses the importance of mental readiness,
More and more opportunities should be given to the child .
Review of the learned material.
Importance of motivation and reinforcement in learning.
What is learned in one situation should be linked with the past experience of the learner.
PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV (1849-1936)A RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGIST.Pavlov was the
first to explain the process of conditioning as a form learning in which the capacity to elicit a
response is transferred from one stimulus to another. Since it was the first observation by an
experimenter , it is called classical conditioning or respondent conditioning.He won Nobel
prize in1904 on his research on digestive process. Conditioning is the modification of a
natural response. Pavlov had been studying the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in
dogs, in response to varying amounts and kinds of food.
Reflexes: Physiological reflex is an innate process which controls the amount of gastric
secretion , depending on the kind and amount of food in the stomach.
Psychic secretion (conditioned) occurs only as a result of particular experience.
PRINCIPLES OF CONDITIONING
EXTINCTION
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
INHIBITION
STIMULUS GENERALISATION
HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Fear, Love, Hatred towards subjects, objects, phenomena or event are created through
conditioning
Sympathetic treatment results in desirable behavior .Use of AV aids involves conditioning
theory
Helps in developing good habits in children .Bad habits can be deconditioned.
Operant conditioning :Put forward by B.F.Skinner of Harward University.Conducted
experiments on rats and pigeons. Skinner was against the no stimulus –no response theory.
He identified two types of responses-Elicited and Emitted responses.Elicited responses are
also called respondend response is having a specific stimulus.Emitted responses are also
called operant responses emitted for an unknown stimulus.In respondent behaviour , the
stimulus preceding the response is responsible for causing the behaviour.The stimulus
causing the oprant response is unknown and knowledge of the cause of the behaviour is not
important. The consequences of the behaviour is are of greater importance and operant
behaviour is controlled by the strength of its consequences rather by the strength of the
stimulus.
Definition:Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where a response is
made more probable or more frequent by reinforcements. Operant is an action which
constitute an organism doing something .
Operations involved in operant conditioning
Shaping
Chaining
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Shaping
Shaping : it refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring certain desirable
changes in the behaviour of the organism. It is done by building a chain of responses through
step by step process.
Shaping involves:1. generalization
2.habit competition
3.chaining
Building Complex Behaviors
Shaping:Gradual reinforcement of successive approximations of target behavior. Used to
train animals to do complex tricks.
Spontaneous recovery :If the organism is removed from the situation for a while after
extinction and then returned again and presented with S1 its performance will be better than
would predicted from his performance at the end of preceding extinction.
Reinforcement
Reinforcer: any stimulus whoose presentation or removal increases the chance of occurrence
of a response .
The application or removal of a stimulus to increase the strength of behaviour is called
reinforcement.
Types of Reinforcement:Two types of reinforcements. Positive and negative :
Positive reinforcement: a stimulus which when added to a situation , increases the likelihood
of the preceding response (behaviiour).
eg: food, praise, smile.
Negative reinforcement: it is a stimulus which when removed from the situation increases the
likelihood of the desirable behaviour
Electric shock, loud noice, restriction
Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
N.R results from the elimination of an unpleasant stimulus, where as punishment involves the
presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or removal of a positive one.
N.R increases the behaviour preceding it: whereas punishment decreases the behaviour
preceding it.
Schedules of Reinforcement
It refers to the timed plan according to which reinforces follow the response.
Schedules of Reinforcement
It is of two types
Continuous schedule
Partial or intermittent schedule
Partial schedules of reinforcement
1.Fixed interval
2.Fixed ratio
3.Variable ratio
4.Variable interval
Reinforcement and Feed back
R.I is a stimulus whose presentation or removal increase the probability of a response to
appear again
Feed back is an information fed –back to the learner. It contains the knowledge of the result.
Feedback will provide the learner with an immediate confirmation of correctness of his
response.
Reinforcement and Feed back. Knowledge of correctness is reinforcing to the
learner.Feedback will act as reinforcer in learning situation. Feedback is a positive reinforcer.
Educational Implications
Behaviour of an individual depends on the consequences. So teaching learning situation
should be with minimum frustration and maximum satisfaction. O.C. can be used in the
modification of undesirable behaviour.
Educational Implications
Use of reinforcer like smile , praise, rewards etc.
Learning activities should be divided into small steps and each should be reinforced.
Teaching machine and programmed instruction are based on O.C.
Principles of operant conditioning
Relies on principle of reinforcement, in which the consequences of a behavior lead to a
higher frequency of the behavior occurring later on. Reinforcement works best when it
involves a response contingency.
There are different types of reinforcers:Positive reinforcement is when a desired reinforcer is
presented after the occurrence of the desired behavior.
Negative reinforcement is when an unpleasant event or circumstance is removed after the
occurrence of the desired behavior.
Principles of operant conditioning
Punishment is typically the occurrence of an unpleasant event as a consequence of a
response, always decreasing the likelihood of the recurrence of that response.
Punishment is most effective if it has three characteristics:
It should occur immediately after the undesired behavior.It must be consistent. It must be
aversive without being abusive. Effective Punishment. Should beSwift Consistent
Appropriately aversive Challenges Physical punishment may be imitated May fear the person
who punishes Most effective when paired with reinforcers
Principles of operant conditioning
Dangers of using punishment: It does not eliminate the capacity to engage in the problem
behavior. Physical punishment may elicit increased aggressive behavior in the person being
punished. Through classical conditioning, the person being punished may learn to fear the
punisher. Typically requires continuous observation.
Shaping Behavior :Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the probability of the behavior it follows.
Continuous reinforcement (rewarding every correct response) results in fast learning, but can
be quickly extinguished.
Partial reinforcement keeps us responding vigorously for longer.
Variable ratio reinforcement leads to the highest rates of responding greatest resistance to
extinction.
Constructivism
Constructivism – definition :Fundamentally, constructivism
says that
people construct their own understanding and
knowledge of
the world through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences.
Have you ever constructed a new knowledge by your own effort?
Constructivism is a learning theory
•Learning is an active process •Knowledge is constructed from (and shaped by) experience
•Constructivism is a learning theory
Learning is a personal interpretation of the world
Constructivism is a learning theory
Emphasizes problem solving and understanding •Uses authentic tasks,
experiences, settings, assessments
•Content presented holistically –not in separate smaller parts
What is constructivism?
Learners make (construct) their own meaning.
In a constructivist classroom, teachers search for learner’s understanding, and then structure
learning opportunities for students to refine or revise these understandings by:
 Posing contradiction
 Presenting new information
 Asking questions
 Encouraging research
 Engaging students in inquiries designed to challenge current concepts
5 principles of constructivist classrooms
1. Teachers seek and value students’ points of view
2. Classroom activities challenge students’ believes
3. Teachers pose problems of emerging relevance
4. Teachers build lessons around “big ideas”
5. Teachers assess learning in the context of daily teaching
Traditional classrooms:Dominated by teacher talk. Heavily reliant on texts (one set of truths)
Students work alone on low-level skills.Student thinking is devalued, with a focus on “right”
and “wrong” answers .Schooling is premised on the notion that there is a fixed world the
learner must come to know. The construction of new knowledge is not valued.
Constructivism Knowledge is socially constructed and the learner construct knowledge for
himself when he learns in a social context.Learning is an interpretive, building process by
active learners interacting with the physical and social world.Knowledge is not a fixed
object. It is constructed by and individual through his own experiences with that object,
which is unique.
People learn to learn as they learn:Learning consisting both of constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning.Reflective activities side by side with physical actions and
hands on experiences are necessary for learning that leads to development.
Learning involves language:Language and learning are inextricably intertwined.
Learning is social activity :
Our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings-our
teachers, peers, our family etc.
Learning is contextual :We learn in relationship to what else we know , what we believe ,our
prejudices and fears.
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORIES
1. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY BANDURA
2. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
3. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
4. SUBSUMPTION THEORY BY AUSUBEL
5. BRUNER’S THEORY OF LEARNING BY DISCOVERY
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY BANDURA
Albert Bandura, a Canadian Psychologist.
Most influential psychologist like Skinner, Freud and Piaget.Became youngest president of
American Psychological Association (APA).people can learn new information and behaviors
by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling).
Bobo doll experiment: Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they
have observed in other people.
Bandura identified three basic models
A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. A
verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.A
symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books,
films, television programs, or online media.External, environmental reinforcement was not
the only factor to influence learning and behavior. Intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on
internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental
theories.
While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself
describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.
The Modeling Process:
Attention:
In order to learn, we need to be pay attention to the task. Anything that detracts our attention
is going to have a negative effect on observational learning.
If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to
dedicate your full attention to learning.
Retention:The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later
and act on it is vital to observational learning.
Reproduction:Once the learner had paid attention to the model and retained the information,
it is time to actually perform the behavior observed. Further practice of the learned behavior
leads to improvement and skill advancement.
Motivation:
In order for observational learning to be successful, the learner have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing
these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of
reinforcement or punishment.
Piaget’s cognitive constructivism
Who was Jean Piaget?What are his major ideas?what are the major stages of development
according to Piaget?How learning occurs according to Piaget?What are the implications of
Piaget’s Theory?
Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980)
A Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies
with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together
called "genetic epistemology".
In 1923, he married Valentine Châtenay; the couple had three children, whom Piaget studied
from infancy.
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the
International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of
saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."
Major concepts
 Cognitive structure
 Schemas
 Assimilation
 Accommodation
 Equilibration
Stages of development
1. Sensori-motor stage ( birth to 2 years)
2. Pre-operational stage ( 2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete operational stage ( 7 to 11 years)
4. Formal operational stage ( 11 and above)
Sensori-motor stage
Co-ordination of reflexes
Accomplishment of object causality
Accomplishment of object permanence
Accomplishment of object consistence
1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age two. The children experience the world through
movement and their five senses. During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely
egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. The
sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages:
I. Simple reflexes; From birth to one month old. At this time infants use reflexes such as
rooting and sucking.
II. First habits and primary circular reactions; From one month to four months old.
During this time infants learn to coordinate sensation and two types of schema (habit and
circular reactions).
A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by
accident (ex.: sucking thumb).
III. Secondary circular reactions;
From four to eight months old.
At this time they become aware of things beyond their own body; they are more objectoriented.
At this time they might accidentally shake a rattle and continue to do it for sake of
satisfaction.
They also understand object permanence during this stage. That is, they understand that
objects continue to exist even when they can't see them.
IV. Coordination of secondary circular reactions;
From eight months to twelve months old.
During this stage they can do things intentionally.
They can now combine and recombine schemata and try to reach a goal (ex.: use a stick to
reach something).
V. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity;
From twelve months old to eighteen months old.
During this stage infants explore new possibilities of objects; they try different things to get
different results.
VI. Internalization of schemata.
Pre-operational stage ( 2 to 7 years)
Divided into : pre-conceptual stage ( 2 to 4 years)
Intuitive stage ( 4 to 7 years)
Pre-conceptual stage
Representational thought
Differed imitation
Symbolic play
Transductive reasoning
Ego-centrism
Animistic thought
Intuitive stage ( 4 to 7 years)
Lacks many cognitive abilities like
Serialization (seriation)
Reversibility
De-centration
Conservation
Concrete operational stage
Inductive-deductive reasoning
Flexibility in thought
Understanding the principle of conservation
Classification and seriation
Reversibility thought
Formal operational stage
Ability to deal with abstraction
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Systematic approach to solve problems
Use of abstract rules
Ability to transfer knowledge
Principle 1: Posing Problems of Emerging Relevance to Students. Constructivist teachers
seek to ask big questions to give students a chance to think about it, and lead them to the
resources to answer it. Principle 2: Structuring Learning Around Big Ideas.When concepts
are presented as wholes, students seek to make meaning by breaking the wholes into parts
that they can see and understand; they construct (constructivism) the process and
understanding rather than having it done for them.
See the differences?
Traditional teaching focuses primarily on lower-order cognitive skills (memorization)
Constructivist teaching focusing on higher order cognitive skills of analysis, reflection, and
synthesis.
Principle 3: Seeking and valuing students points of view
Students points of views are windows to their reasoning.
The acknowledgement that other perspectives exist implies relativity and merit, and casts
doubt on many of the other “truths” we accept without reflection.
Constructivist Teachers…
Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative
Use raw data and primary sources along with manipulative, interactive and physical materials
When framing tasks, use cognitive terminology like “classify”, “analyze”, “predict”, and
“create”
Constructivist Teachers…
Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter content
Inquire about students’ understandings of concepts before sharing their own understandings
Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one another
Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encouraging
students to ask questions of one another.
Constructivist Teachers…
Seek elaboration of initial student responses
Engage students in experiences that might be contradictory to their hypotheses, and then
encourage discussion
Allow wait time, and are considerate for students who process differently.
Constructivist Teachers Provide time for students to construct relationships and create
metaphors.
Constructivist Methods of teaching
Constructivist teaching methods are based on constructivist learning
theory.Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed
from a base of prior knowledge.Child’s mind is not a blank slate and knowledge
cannot be imparted without the child making sense of it according to his or her
current conceptions. Children learn best when they are allowed to construct a
personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those
experiences.
Constructivist teaching strategies
One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn
how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning
experiences.
characteristics
According to Audrey Gray, the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are:
the learners are actively involved
the environment is democratic
the activities are interactive and student-centered.the teacher facilitates a
process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and
autonomous…
Examples of constructivist activities
Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come
together as a class to discuss the results.
Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to the
class.
Field trips: It allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-world
context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions.
Film: These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the
learning experience.
Class discussions: This technique is used in all of the methods adopted for
constructivist class rooms.
Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning.tools such as
discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct
knowledge.
Role of teachers
In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate
discussion.
David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in
constructivist learning environments:
 Modeling
 Coaching
 Scaffolding
Modeling : the most commonly used instructional strategy in constructivist
learning environment (CLE)s.
Two types of modeling exist: behavioural modeling of the overt performance
and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes.
Behavioural modeling :demonstrates how to perform the activities identified in
the activity structure.
Cognitive modeling:articulates the reasoning (reflection-in-action) that learners
should use while engaged in the activities.
Coaching :role of coach is complex.
a good coach
motivates learners,
 analyzes their performance,
 provides feedback and
 advice on the performance and
 how to learn about how to perform, and
 provokes reflection and articulation of what was learned
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a more systemic approach to supporting the learner, focusing on
 the task,
 the environment,
 the teacher, and
 the learner
Scaffolding provides temporary frameworks to support learning and student
performance beyond their capacities.
Problem-based learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about
a subject through the experience of problem solving.
The goals of PBL





to help the students develop flexible knowledge,
effective problem solving skills,
self-directed learning,
effective collaboration skills and
intrinsic motivation.
Working in groups:students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and
how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem
The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by
supporting,
guiding, and
monitoring the learning process
Cooperative and collaborative learning:
Very difficult to make differentiate between cooperative and collaborative
learning.Collaboration is a term derived from Latin root word meaning working
together.Cooperation is the product of such working together.Some consider
both collaborative and cooperative learning as the same.With regard to the
conceptual framework, both are same.When the small group instruction begin in USA ,
authors used the term cooperative learning.When started in United Kingdom ,the term
of collaborative learning was suggested.Cooperative learning refers to
instructional methods and techniques in which students work in small groups.
and are rewarded in some way for the performance as a group.
Cooperative learning
Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds.cooperative learning tasks
are intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher order
thinking tasks.In 1994 Johnson published 5 elements of cooperative learning:
positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction,
social skills, and processing.In a cooperative learning environment. Students work together
for common goals.Motivating themselves by depending on others.Encourage
each other during the task of learning.Each member is responsible for:
Learning what is taught
Helping the teammates to learn
Creating an environment of achievement.
Elements of cooperative learning
According to Johnson et.al, cooperative learning involves:
 Positive interdependence
 Face to face promotive interaction
 Individual and group accountability
 Interpersonal and small group skills
 Group processing
Positive interdependence :One
cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds.. Individual and
group accountability :Group is accountable for the success of each member, and each
member is accountable for the success of the group.
Interpersonal and small group skills :Leadership Decision making skills. Trust building
Communication and Conflict management
Group processing :It involves an analysis of ,how well they are performing,
trying to achieve the goal and maintaining effective working relationships
Types of cooperative learning procedures
Depending upon the nature of the target to be achieved
Formal cooperative learning group and Informal cooperative learning group
Formal cooperative learning group : Lasts for one class to several weeks to complete a task. The
teacher/instructor gives the necessary instructions and objectives to the students.
Instructor assign each student to a learning group.
Instructor explains the task and cooperative skills and provide assistance when required.
Instructor evaluates the quality and quantity of each student’s learning
Informal cooperative learning groups
These are temporary or adhoc groups that lasts for one discussion or one period.
The purpose is to:
Focus on student’s attention on the material to be learned.Set a conducive learning environment.
Help organise in advance the material to be covered in a class session.Ensure that students cognitively
process the material being discussed Set closure
Informal groups can be formed during the lecture sessions to make sure that
each student is actively participating in the learning process.
Base groups :Long term heterogeneous cooperative learning groups with stable
membership. Each group members role is required and indispensable for group success.
Each group member has a unique contribution to make the joint effort.
Face to face promotive interaction
Work together to promote each others success by helping, encouraging and applauding each other’s efforts.
Collaborative learning :It
is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to
learn something together. collaborative learning refers to methodologies and
environments in which learners engage in a common task where each individual depends on
and is accountable to each other.These include both face-to-face conversations and
computer discussions (online forums, chat rooms, etc.).Collaborative learning is
used as an umbrella term for a variety of approaches in education that involve joint
intellectual effort by students or students and teachers.
when groups of students work together to search for understanding, meaning, or
solutions or to create a product of their learning, collaborative learning occurs.
Collaborative learning is closely related to cooperative learning.
Cooperative Learning Techniques
There are a great number of cooperative learning techniques :
Some cooperative learning techniques utilize student pairing, while others
utilize small groups of four or five students.
Think Pair Share :developed by Frank T. Lyman (1981) allows for students
to look seriously a posed question or problem silently. The student may write
down thoughts or simply just brainstorm in his or her head. When prompted, the
student pairs up with a peer and discusses his or her idea(s) and then listens to
the ideas of his or her partner. Following the dialogues between the student
pairs, the teacher solicits responses from the whole group.
Jigsaw :Here the students are members of two groups: home group and expert
group. In the heterogeneous home group each student is assigned a topic or
question. Once they got the topic the member leaves the home group and form
group with other students .In the new group they discusses the topic until they
learn and returns to the home group.On return to their home group each student
is responsible to teach the topic to his group member.
Jigsaw II:Developed by Robert Slavin (1980), an American psychologist. variation
of Jigsaw in which members of the home group are assigned the same material,
but focus on separate portions of the material.
Reciprocal Teaching :Developed by Brown & Paliscar (1982). It is a cooperative
technique that allows for student pairs to participate in a dialogue about text.
Each member must become an "expert" on his or her assigned portion and teach
the other members of the home group.Partners take turns reading and
asking questions of each other, receiving immediate feedback.Here the
students use important metacognitive techniques such as clarifying,
questioning, predicting, and summarizing.
STAD (or Student-Teams-Achievement Divisions) :
students are placed in small groups.
The entire class is presented with a lesson. And the students are subsequently
tested. Individuals are graded on the team's performance. Although the
tests are taken individually, students are encouraged to work together to
improve the overall performance of the group.
Benefits and applicability of cooperative learning
Students demonstrate academic achievement
Cooperative learning methods are usually equally effective for all ability levels
Cooperative learning is effective for all ethnic groups.
Student perceptions of one another are enhanced when given the opportunity to work with
one another. Cooperative learning increases self-esteem and self-concept.Ethnic and
physically/mentally handicapped barriers are broken down allowing for positive
interactions and friendships to occur.
Cooperative learning results in
Increased higher level reasoning
Increased generation of new ideas and solutions
Greater transfer of learning between situations
Differences :Collaborative learning Reflects the philosophy of working together with less or no control of a
supervisor/ teacher Cooperative learning. It is a technique or strategy with a well structured form for the
purpose of a particular objective/product: Collaboration refers to the whole process of learning,where he
students teach each other, students teach the teacher by asking doubts and the teacher teaches the students
It is a technique helpful to finish certain product oriented task by working together in a faster and more effective
way.More responsibility is shared among the learners and the teacher has only less control
over the learning of the students.In this the teacher maintains control of the group/class,thoughthe
students will be working together to accomplish a goal.wider
scope when compared to
cooperative learning. Only narrow scope in related to a specific task.In this time
allowed to complete the work/task is decided by the learners themselves
A fixed time schedule is given by the instructor/ teacher
learners have the freedom to decide the details of the evaluation programme.
Details of the evaluation programme are decided by the teacher/supervisor.
Benefits and applicability of cooperative learning
Students demonstrate academic achievement
Cooperative learning methods are usually equally effective for all ability levels
Cooperative learning is effective for all ethnic groups
Student perceptions of one another are enhanced when given the opportunity to work with
one another
Cooperative learning increases self-esteem and self-concept
Ethnic and physically/mentally handicapped barriers are broken down allowing
for positive interactions and friendships to occur.
Cooperative learning results in
Increased higher level reasoning
Increased generation of new ideas and solutions
Greater transfer of learning between situations
Benefits of collaborative learning
Engage in subject specific discussions with peers
Learn how to work cooperatively and support each other
Develop effective teamwork and communication (including interpersonal and
cross cultural awareness) skills
Assimilate multiple views to deepen knowledge and promote critical thinking
Foster individual accountability to the team
Develop independent learning strategies
Structure out-of-class learning
Alleviate learner isolation
Examples of Collaborative Learning
Collaborative Networked Learning :
According to Findley (1987) "Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL) is that learning which occurs
via electronic dialogue between self-directed co-learners and learners and experts.
Learners share a common purpose, depend upon each other and are accountable
to each other for their success.
CNL occurs in interactive groups in which participants actively communicate and negotiation
meaning with one another within a contextual framework which may be facilitated by an
online coach, mentor or group leader.
Computer-supported collaborative learning
(CSCL) is a relatively new educational paradigm within collaborative learning which uses technology in a
learning environment to help mediate and support group interactions in a collaborative learning context.
CSCL systems use technology to control and monitor interactions, to regulate tasks, rules,
and roles, and to mediate the acquisition of new knowledge.
Collaborative Learning in Virtual Worlds
Virtual Worlds by their nature provide an excellent opportunity for collaborative learning.
collaborative learning is evolving as companies starting to take advantage of unique features
offered by virtual world spaces - such as ability to record and map the flow of ideas, use 3D
models and virtual worlds mind mapping tools.
Collaborative learning in thesis circles in higher education
In a thesis circle, a number of students work together with at least one professor or lecturer,
to collaboratively coach and supervise individual work on final (e.g. undergraduate or MSc)
projects
Peer tutoring
Peer tutoring
Peer-to-Peer Tutoring is a method of instruction that involves students teaching
other students.
“the acquisition of knowledge
and skill through active helping and supporting among status equals or matched companions.
It involves people from similar social groupings who are not professional teachers helping each other
learn and learning themselves by so doing”
Peer tutoring is an organized learning experience in which one student serves as
the teacher or tutor, and one is
the learner or tutee.
Students learn more and demonstrate mastery when they are able to
comprehensively teach a subject.
when a student is struggling, someone who is on the same age level as them
helps to create bridges in the learning gaps.
A peer tutor can form examples and relate to a student on an entirely different
level than an adult educator.
It gives students an opportunity to use their knowledge in a meaningful, social
experience
Tutors reinforce their own learning by reviewing and reformulating their
knowledge.
Tutees gain one-on-one attention. Both tutors and tutees gain self-confidence
How to become Peer tutors
Positive verbal feedback
Corrective feedback:
Modeling the teacher:
Role-playing between teacher and tutors:
Role-playing between students
Benefits to students :
•
Improves self confidence
Improves self-esteem, as they become more successful students
Improves academic achievement
Improves attitude towards the subject matter and school in general
Encourages greater persistence in completing tasks and courses
Encourages the use of appropriate and efficient learning and study strategies
Provides an opportunity for individualized instruction
Provides opportunities for questions and clarification of difficult concepts
Provides additional review and practice of difficult material
additional benefits to students:
The learning of academic skills
The development of social behaviors and overall discipline
Enhancement of peer relations
Improved internal locus of control
Students who acquire skills transferable to employment or business
Students who acquire skills transferable to parenting
Improved vocabulary skills
Improved reading skills