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Rigid and non-rigid Rotors N. Chandrakumar We consider free rotation of a rigid diatomic molecule around an axis which passes through its center of mass, and is perpendicular to the molecular axis. r1 r2 m2 m1 r The diatomic molecule comprises two atoms, numbered 1 and 2, with respective atomic masses m1 and m2, a distance r apart. The center of mass (which is at a distance r1 from atom 1 and r2 from atom 2, such that r1+r2 = r) is located by recognizing that the moments of the masses should be equal around this point, ie, m1r1=m2r2. We thus have: r1 m1 m2 r1m1 r1m2 r2 m2 r1m2 r1 r2 m2 rm2 r1 rm2 m 1 m2 By an analogous calculation, we find: r2 m1rm m1 2 For the moment of inertia, we find in terms of the reduced mass eff: I mi ri 2 m1r12 m2 r22 r 2 i I eff r 2 m1m22 m1 m2 2 r2 eff mm11mm22 m2 m12 m1 m2 2 r2 m1m2 m1 m2 The free rigid rotor is not subject to a force, ie, sees a constant potential that may be set to zero, so that the total energy comprises the kinetic energy alone. For the kinetic energy of the rotor, we have: 2 1 i i 2 i It is more convenient to express the kinetic energy in terms of the angular velocity which characterizes the rotation, rather than in terms of the linear velocity v which varies for different particles of the rotor, by employing the standard relation viri. [Recall that the length of an arc of a circle is directly proportional to the angle subtended by it: l = r. This clearly results in: dl/dt = r (d/dt), ie, v = r] mv T We find, in terms of the moment of inertia I: T 2 2 m r i i i 2 12 I 2 We also recognize that the angular momentum of the rotating object is given by: J mi ri vi mi ri 2 I i i Quantum mechanically, however the magnitude of the angular momentum is given by [J(J+1)]1/2. It may be noted that rotational angular velocities are quantized accordingly: J J 1 I We thus find the following expression for the energy of the free rigid rotor: EJ T 1 I 2 I 2 1 2I J J 1 2 The allowed rotational quantum numbers are: J = 0,1,2,3,… . Expressed in units of wavenumbers, rotational energies are given as: EJ EJ hc J J 1 8h2cI BJ J 1 The eigenfunctions of the rigid free rotor are the spherical harmonics, YJ,M, M being the eigenvalue of the z component of the rotational angular momentum, ie, Jz. Selection rules for rotational transitions may be found by considering conditions under which the transition dipole moment integral fi vanishes. The required integral is given in terms of the molecular permanent electric dipole moment by: 2 Y J f ,M f μYJ i , M i sin d d 0 0 Mf 2 iM f iM i Mi ˆ e d k PJ f cos cos PJ i cos sin d e 0 0 2 Mf iM M iM f i i ~ 0 ˆi PJ f cos sin PJ i cos sin d e cos e d 0 0 Mf 2 iM f Mi iM i ˆ j P cos sin P cos sin d e sin e d Jf Ji 0 0 Because the spherical harmonics – which form a complete set of orthonormal functions in and may be factored into the associated Legendre polynomials (which are polynomials in [cos multiplied by oscillatory complex functions of , we infer the following selection rules for rotational transitions: J = 1, . Further, we notice that , the permanent electric dipole moment of the molecule needs to be non-zero, for a rotational transition to be allowed. The spacing between two successive rotational transitions, one between the levels J and J+1 and the other between levels J+1 and J+2, is clearly 2B. The intensities of rotational transitions are, in addition, a function of the population of the rotational energy levels. We have: NJ ~ gJ e EJ kT 2 J 1 e J J 1 2 2 IkT Clearly, population is maximal at a value of J which may be found by treating it as a continuous variable, with respect to which NJ is differentiated: dN J dJ 0 2e 2 J 1 2J 1 J max IkT 2 J J 1 2 2 IkT 2 2 IkT 2 2 J 1 2 2 2 IkT e J J 1 2 2 IkT 2 IkT 1 2 2 kT h 8 2 Bc h 1 2 kT 2 Bch 1 2 12 Moments of Inertia Moments of inertia may be defined along three principal molecular axes A, B and C that are mutually orthogonal. Spherical tops: All three moments of inertia are equal (eg. CH4). Symmetric tops: Two components are equal, the third one being different. There are two sub-categories here, viz., prolates, for which the unique IA < IB = IC (eg. CH3CN), and oblates, for which the unique IA > IB = IC (eg. benzene). Linear molecules: Two components of the moments of inertia, around axes perpendicular to the molecular axis and to each other are equal; while the third component along the molecular axis vanishes. Asymmetric tops: All three moments of inertia are unequal (eg. CH2Cl2, O3, SO2). Non-rigid rotors Centrifugal forces due to rotation, which are significant especially at high rotational angular velocities, are balanced by restoring forces which keep the molecule from flying apart. The centrifugal force may be readily calculated from the centrifugal acceleration, which in turn is the rate of change of radial velocity of the rotating system. For a system with linear velocity v and rotational velocity , the centrifugal acceleration is readily seen to be: v [cos ((d)]/dt = v (sin d/dt) = v (ddt) = v = r . The centrifugal force is thus given by eff r. We thus have: eff r 2 k r r0 r k eff 2 kr0 r k k eff 2 r0 r0 eff 2 1 k r0 1 2 2 vib r 1 r01 1 2 ; r 2 r02 1 2 2 vib 2 vib 1 2 r02 1 22 ; r r0 r0 2 2 vib 2 vib vib In the foregoing, we have taken into account the fact that rotational velocities are typically a tiny fraction of the angular frequencies of vibration, the square of their ratio being normally in the range 103 to 107. For the energy of the non-rigid rotor, we need to take into account now the rotational kinetic energy, as well as the potential energy corresponding to the restoring force. We have: T J J 1 2 I J J 1 2 2 2 eff r0 J J 1 2 2 2 eff r0 2 J J 1 2 T J J 1 2 I 2 J 2 J 1 2 V 12 k r r0 k2 r02 4 2 4 vib eff 2 1 2 2 2 2 vib J J 1 2 2 2 r I2 eff 0 vib 2 4 2 2 I 3vib r02 J 2 J 1 EJ T V J J 1 2 I J 2 J 1 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 vib I J 2 J 1 2 4 2 2 I 3vib 4 2 2 I 3vib In units of wavenumbers, we have for the energy levels of the non-rigid rotor: EJ BJ J 1 4 B2 J 2 J 1 BJ J 1 DJ 2 J 1 3 2 vib [Note that vib is the vibrational frequency expressed in rad s1, while vib is the vibrational frequency expressed in wavenumbers.] 2