Download An Introduction to the Study of World Religions

An Introduction to the Study of World
Religions
From the earliest known evidence of human religion by Homo Sapiens
Neanderthalensis around 100,000 years ago to the present day, religion
continues to be a very influential aspect of human lives.
Today, there are numerous challenges and problems faced by humans from
every possible background, location and social class. Every day people must
face issues of health, safety and mortality. It is because of these daily
challenges that religion continues to exist. Religion is the universal tool for
explaining things which we do not understand through the context the known
physical world.
Although there are countless religions, each different from the other, they all
serve the same purpose. Each answers questions which all humans seem to be
programmed to ask: Why are we here? What happens when I die? How shall I
live my life?
Religion helps us to transmit our values from one generation to another, and
influences the way we interact with the natural environment. It teaches us how
to see ourselves in light of the universe and gives purpose and meaning to life.
The following pages serve as a brief introduction to several world religions.
They are intended to to whet your appetite for further study and to help you
understand those around you better.
With our global society, it is likely that in your lifetime you will meet people
from every corner of the planet. Understanding the religious beliefs of these
people is one of the many steps which mankind must take in order to someday
prosper together in peace.
History of Islam
The history of Islam centers around one person, Muhammad (also spelled
Muhammed or Mohammed). He was born around 570 A.D. and was raised by
his extended family after the death of his parents. As he grew, he became
dissatisfied with polytheism and came to believe in one God, Allah. He began
to have religious visions around age 40. During these visions, Muhammad
would receive "messages" or "revelations" from Allah. He would memorize
them and teach them to his followers. These visions are now recorded in the
Qur'an (or Koran). Muhammad continued to receive these visions and
messages until his death in 632 A.D.
The Expansion of Islam
Muhammad's new faith was not widely accepted in his hometown of Mecca.
Therefore, he and his followers moved to Medina which means "City of the
Prophet". This movement is known as the Hijirat or "the flight". It marks the
turning point in Islam and serves as the beginning date on Islamic calendars.
At first, Muhammad was sympathetic to both Christians and Jews, but after
their rejection of his teaching, he turned from Jerusalem as the center of
worship for Islam to Mecca. He realized he must return to Mecca, and he did,
conquering the city. Islam quickly spread throughout the area.
When Muhammad died, he left no document appointing a successor. Some
people thought that one of the original converts who had taught with
Muhammad, some wanted a member of a powerful political family in the area,
and others felt that 'Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad had been
divinely designated as successor. An early believer, Abu Bakr was appointed,
but died within two years.
Eventually, a power struggle developed as different groups of Muslims
believed their method of establishing a successor were the best. The largest
argument was over whether the successor should be elected or chosen through
heredity. This controversy produced the main body of Islam known as the
Sunnis (followers of the prophet's way) and other numerous sects including the
Shi'a and the Sufis. The Sunnis are the majority in Islam today.
The Shi'a are the group of Muslims who believe that the successorship should
remain within Muhammad's family, and that leaders are spiritually chosen, not
politically chosen. They carry with them the pain of Muhammad's son-in-law,
'Ali, who was murdered by Mu'awiya in order to obtain power. Today, the Shi'a
dominate Iran.
The Sufis are a group who believes that orthodox Islam is too mechanical and
impersonal. This group of Islamic mystics seek for direct personal experience
of the Divine.
Nationalism in the Arab world since the rise of Israel as a political power has
kept Islam strong. It is a rapidly spreading religion because of its cultural and
political appeal and its universal message of peace, temperance and the
brotherhood of man.
Islamic Terms
Allah The Supreme Being. The name of God.
Hadith The sacred sayings of Muhammad, handed down by oral tradition and
finally written down.
Hajj Pilgrimage to Mecca. One of the five pillars of the Islamic faith.
Hegira Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D.
Islam "submission to the will of Allah"
Koran (Qur'an) The inspired word of God given to Muhammad by the angel
Gabriel.
Mecca The birthplace of Muhammad, and the holy city of Islam.
Medina Holy city named for Muhammad after he fled there in 622 A.D.
Muhammad Prophet and founder of Islam. Born around 570 A.D., died 632
A.D.
Moslem (Muslim) Follower of Muhammad. "one who submits"
Mosque Islamic place of worship.
Muezzlin Moslem crier who announces the hour of prayer.
Ramadan The ninth month of the Moslem year, when Muhammad received the
Qur'an from heaven, now a month of fasting.
Salat Moslem daily prayer ritual. One of the five pillars of Islam.
Shi'ites Moslem sect which insists that Muhammad's son-in-law 'Ali was
Muhammad's rightful successor.
Sufis Iranian philosophical mystics who have interpreted Islam for themselves.
Sunnites Largest Moslem sect which acknowledges all of Muhammad's
successors.
Surahs What the chapters of the Qur'an are called.
Basic Beliefs of Islam
The teachings of Islam are comprised of both faith and duty (din). One branch
of Muslim learning, "Tawhid", defines all that a man should believe, while the
other branch, "Shari'a," prescribes everything that he should do. There is no
priesthood and no sacraments. Except among the Sufis, Muslims receive
instruction only from
those who consider themselves adequately learned
in theology or law.
The basis for Islamic doctrine is found in the
Qur'an (Koran). Muslims believe the Qur'an is the
word of God, spoken by the angel Gabriel to
Muhammad. The Qur'an was only in oral form
while Muhammad was living, which means it was
constantly interpreted by Muhammad and his
disciples. It was written down in the caliphate of
Abu Bakr. It alone is infallible and without error. The Qur'an is comprised of
114 surahs, or chapters, arranged from longest to shortest. For Muslims
Muhammad was the last and most perfect of God's seven prophets or
messengers to mankind.
In addition to the Qur'an, other documents are also referred to by followers of
Islam. A number of additional sayings of Muhammad were complied in the
Hadith ("tradition"). The Torat (of Moses), Suhuf (books of the prophets),
Zabur (psalms of David), and the Injil (gospel of Jesus) are also studied and
considered to be revelations, although they are believed to have been corrupted
through time.
Six Articles of Faith
The six articles of faith are the main doctrines of Islam. All Muslims share
beliefs in the following:
1. Allah. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam believes there is one true
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Allah (The Arabic translation of the word God). Allah alone is the
creator of all the universe.
Angels. Angels exist and interact with human lives. They are comprised
of light, and each have different purposes or messages to bring to earth.
Each man or woman has two angels who record his actions; one records
good deeds, the other bad deeds.
Scripture. There are four inspired books, the Torah of Moses, the
Psalms (Zabin) of David, the Gospel of Jesus Christ (Injil) and the
Qur'an. All but the Qur'an have been interpreted and changed by Jews
and Christians.
Prophets. God has spoken through numerous prophets throughout time.
The six greatest are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and
Muhammad. Muhammad is the last and greatest of Allah's messengers.
Afterlife. On the last day there will be a time of resurrection and
judgment. Those who follow Allah and Muhammad will go to Islamic
heaven, or Paradise. Those who do not will go to hell.
Divine Creed.
The Five Pillars of Faith
The five pillars of faith are duties each Muslim performs to demonstrate his or
her faith.
1. Testimony of Faith (Kalima)- One must state,
"There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is
the Prophet of Allah." publicly to become a
Muslim.
2. Prayer (Salat)- Prayer must be done five times
a day (upon rising, at noon, in mid-afternoon,
after sunset, and before going to sleep) towards
the direction of Mecca. The call to prayer is
sounded by the muezzin (Muslim crier) from a tower (minaret) within
the mosque.
3. Almsgiving (Zakat)- Muslims are legally required to give one-fortieth
of their income to the needy. Since those whom alms are given are
helping the giver achieve salvation, there is no sense of shame in
receiving charity.
4. Fasting (Sawm- During the holy month of Ramadan, faithful Muslims
fast from sunup to sundown each day. This develops self-control,
devotion to God, and identity with the needy.
5. Pilgrimage (Hajj)- Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to
Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they have the means to do it and
are physically capable of the trip. It is an essential part of gaining
salvation, so the old or infirm may send someone in their place. It
involves a set of rituals and ceremonies.
Another concept in Islam is Jihad, or to Strive. Jihad denotes the struggle to
keep the faith and the ability to practice it freely. This can be a personal battle
or one against leadership. Click here for further definitions and discussion of
the concept of jihad.
History of Judaism
The Old Testament books of the Bible describe numerous struggles of the
Jewish people. After their triumphant Exodus from Egyptian captivity
following Moses, they wandered around in the desert for forty years before
entering the Promised Land. They had many conflicts with neighboring
societies, yet for several centuries were able to maintain a unified state centered
in Jerusalem.
This occupation of the Promised Land was not to last, however. In 722 BC, the
northern part of the Hebrew state fell to Assyrian raiders. By 586 BC,
Jerusalem was conquered by Babylonians. The land of Israel was successively
ruled by Persians, Macedonians, Greeks, Syrians, and Romans in the time that
followed. As a result of the Syrian King Antiochus IV Epiphanes' attempt to
suppress the Jewish religion, a rebellion led by Judas Maccabaeus in 167 BC
resulted in the independence of the Jewish nation. This is celebrated today by
the festival Hanukkah.
In 70 AD, the Roman army destroyed Jerusalem, and the Jews were forced out
of the area and settled in Mediterranean countries and in other areas in
southwest Asia. This migration of the Jewish population is known as Diaspora.
Many of these Jews settled in Europe and became victims of persecution and
poverty. Ghettoes and slums became their homes and massacres were common.
Because of these living conditions, many fled to the United States in the late
19th century. Migration to the States especially climbed during the aftermath of
the Holocaust, the organized murder of Jews during and after World War II.
Today the United States has the largest population of Jewish people with high
concentration areas in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Boston, Miami, and
Washington D.C.
In 1917, an attempt to reestablish Palestine as the Jewish homeland began. By
1948, the State of Israel became an independent country. They have regained
their Hebrew language, which involved inventing words for modern inventions
and concepts unheard of centuries ago and writing a Hebrew dictionary to unify
the language.
Jewish Terms
Diaspora The dispersion of the Jews.
Hanukkah The feast of dedication celebrating the Maccabean victory in 167 B.C.
Passover Annual feast commemorating the deliverance of the firstborn in Egypt when
the angel of death took all those who did not have blood on the doorpost.
Pentateuch The first five books in the Old Testament. Also called Torah.
Rosh Hashanah The Jewish New Year.
Sabbath The holy day of rest which commemorates God's completed work of creation
and His liberation of the Israelites from their bondage in Egypt.
Seder The festival held in Jewish homes on the first night of Passover.
Shabuot The feast of weeks, seven weeks after Passover, which commemorates the
giving of the Ten Commandments. Also called Pentecost.
Sukkoth The feast of tabernacles celebrating the harvest.
Talmud The Jewish library of oral law and tradition.
Torah The Pentateuch, or the entire body of Jewish religious literature, law and teaching
as contained chiefly in the Old Testament and Talmud.
Yom Kippur The day of atonement, devoted to confession of sins and reconciliation
with God, ten days after Rosh Hashanah.
Basic Beliefs of Judaism
Judaism is a monotheistic religion which believes that
the world was created by a single, all-knowing divinity,
and that all things within that world were designed to
have meaning and purpose as part of a divine order.
According to the teachings of Judaism, God's will for
human behavior was revealed to Moses and the
Israelites at Mount Saini. The Torah, or
commandments, which regulate how humans are to
live their lives, were a gift from God so that they might
live in according to His will.
Statement of Faith
Moses Maimonides, a Spanish Jew who lived in the 12th century, tried to
condense the basic beliefs of Judaism into the form of a creed. It is still
followed by the traditional forms of Judaism.
1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the
Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made,
does make, and will make all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is One,
and that there is no unity in any manner like unto His, and that He alone is our
God, who was, and is, and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is not a
body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that He has not
any form whatever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the first
and the last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, blessed be His Name, and to
Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides
Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the works of the prophets are true.
7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses, our teacher, peace be
unto him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both of those who
preceded and of those who followed him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the whole Torah, now in our possession, is
the same that was given to Moses, our teacher, peace be unto him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there
will never be any other Law from the Creator, blessed be His name.
10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows
very deed of the children of men, and all their thoughts, as it is said. It is He
that fashioned the hearts of them all, that gives heed to all their works.
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, rewards
those that keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and, though he
tarry, I will wait daily for his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time
when it shall please the Creator, blessed be His name, and exalted be His Fame
for ever and ever.
For Thy salvation I hope, O Lord.
Three Branches of Judaism
These are the three branches of Judaism which form the framework for the type
of lifestyle and beliefs of Jewish individuals:
OrthodoxTraditionalists who observe most of the traditional dietary and
ceremonial laws of Judaism
ConservativeDo not hold to the importance of a Jewish political state, but put more
emphasis on the historic and religious aspects of Judaism, doctrinally
somewhere between Orthodox and Reform
ReformThe liberal wing of Judaism, culture and race oriented with little
consensus on doctrinal or religious belief
Life of the Buddha
The historical Buddha was born Prince Siddhatha Gotama in
Kapilavatthu, near the present-day border of India and Nepal, on the May
Full Moon day in 623 B.C. His parents, King Suddhodana and Queen
Maya, had waited for a child for a long time. Everyone in the kingdom
rejoiced at his birth.
At this time India already had a rich spiritual heritage. It had been
prophesized there would soon be an ascetic who would realize the ultimate
truth and become the greatest teacher. According the Hindu tradition,
five days after his birth seven Brahmin priests came to the temple to name
the baby using astrology and forecast his future by reading his body signs.
Each of the Brahmins said this baby would become a universal monarch
or leave his princely life to become a world spiritual leader. The youngest
priest, Kondanna, was so confident that this was the future Buddha that he
left the priesthood to wait in the forest for his future teacher.
When Siddhatha was six years old, King Suddhodana organized a
Ploughing Festival which the whole royal family had to attend. Everyone
in the kingdom was celebrating and having a great time, but little
Siddhartha felt that it was all meaningless. He wandered off by himself
and sat under a beautiful tree. Instinctively, he began to watch his breath
and to everyone’s surprise, he started to levitate. It is said that he had
developed this ability by practicing meditation over previous lifetimes.
King Suddhodana loved his son and desperately wanted him to become a
great king. He was given the excellent education of a prince and by age 16
he knew everything a king needed to know. He married Princess
Yasodhara and was given the deputy kingship by his father. Prince
Siddhatha and Princess Yasodhara lived many happy years in the palace.
When Siddhatha was 29 years old he became curious about what was
outside of the city walls. His father forbid him to go out of the city, but
curiosity overwhelmed him and one night he snuck out in disguise with his
best friend, Channa.
A smallpox plague was ravaging the countryside around the city. For the
first time, Siddhatha saw a sick man. He asked Channa, “Can I become
sick one day like this man.” Channa replied, “Yes, because we all have a
human body.”
The next day they went out again. For the first time, Siddhatha saw an
old man. The third day, he say a corpse for the first time. Each time he
realized deep within himself that this was the inescapable fate of all human
beings. On the fourth day, they saw an ascetic with his begging bowl.
When Siddhatha went back to the palace, he complained to his father that
he did not love his own people if he could allow them to suffer so much. At
the same time, he was informed that his first son had been born. He
immediately realized that the bond between him and his son would be so
strong that he would never leave the palace if he did not leave that night.
He felt that if he really loved his wife and child, he should find a solution
for this dukkha, the transient, unsatisfactory nature of life that all beings
experience. He permitted himself one last look at his wife and son before
he left.
Yasodhara was not surprised when
she found out that her husband had
left. Over their thirteen years of
marriage she had observed his
spiritual yearnings. She vowed to
follow him and support him in
whatever he did.
Siddhatha cut off his hair and took
on the life of an ascetic. He became a student of a great Brahmin teacher,
Alarakalama. Within seven months his abilities were equal to his teacher.
Alarakalama asked him to stay and instruct him and his students, but
Siddhartha was not satisfied. He left his teacher and found another
teacher, Uddhakaramaputra, who had attained a higher state of jhana.
Before long, Siddhatha had surpassed the abilities of this teacher. Still, he
had emotional attachments and pain. He left his teacher to practice by
himself.
For six years Siddhatha practiced the most extreme form of ascetism. He
consumed only one meager meal per week. His body was like skin
stretched over a skeleton. He could control his breath for up to one hour.
Finally, he realized that he was no closer to his goal. He began to eat
again. From this point on, he advocated the Middle Way: avoiding the
extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification.
The day before his 35th birthday, again the Full Moon of May, Siddhatha
sat down under the Bodhi tree. He was determined not to get up from that
spot until he had become fully awakened, even if he should die in the
process. By the next morning he had attained nibbana.
For seven weeks he remained at Bodh Gaya, paying respect to the Bodhi
Tree and reviewing what he had understood. He tried to think of someone
who would have the capacity to understand what he had realized. He
thought of his two teachers and realized that they had both passed away.
Then he thought of Kondanna and the four other ascetics that he had
stayed with during his extreme asceticism.
When the five ascetics
saw the Buddha
approaching, they were
determined to ignore
him. They were
convinced that he had
given up his practice
when he started to eat
regularly. However,
when he approached
they could not resist
offering him food and
water. Despite their
doubt, they agreed to
listen to what he had to
say. The Buddha preached all night. This famous sermon is known as the
Dhammacakkapavattava Sutta, or “Wheel of Dhamma.” Over the next few
days, each of the ascetics became enlightened.
The Buddha continued to teach for the next 45 years. During that time he
ordained thousands of monks and nuns and many of them reached
enlightenment, including his wife and his son, Rahula. His chief disciples
were Ananda, the treasurer of the Dhamma, who was able to remember
every sermon the Buddha gave, Sariputta, who was put in charge of the
Sangha upon the Buddha’s death, and Mogallana, who taught the
Dhamma by travelling between worlds.
The Buddha passed into Parinibbana on the Full Moon of May at the age
of 81 in Upawattana Sall Park in Kusinara. He was cremated and his
relics have been divided and enshrined in Buddhist temples around the
globe.
Buddhist Terms
Bhikkhu A Buddhist monk who depends on the generosity of others for his
basic necessities.
Bikkhuni A female monastic.
Bodhi tree Ficus religiosa, the banyan tree that sheltered the Buddha as he
attained spiritual awakening. The image of the Bodhi tree as an icon of
enlightenment predates the use of Buddha statues. A sapling can be found in
many Buddhist temples. A cutting of the original survives at Anuradhapura, Sri
Lanka.
Bodhisattva In Mahayana Buddhism, one
who postpones attaining nirvana in order to
help others achieve this goal. In Theravada
Buddhism, one who is on the way to
becoming a Buddha. Siddhatha Gotama was
called a Bodhisattva before he attained
enlightenment.
Buddha "Awakened one"- This title was
given to Siddhartha Gotama upon his
enlightenment and refers to anyone who
reaches the state of nibbana without
following a prescribed path.
Dāna Giving without expectation. A
practitioner may give dana to any creature,
but the term most often refers to a gift to the monastic order. To give selflessly
brings lasting happiness to the giver, thus it is central to Buddhist practice.
Dhamma (Sanskrit: Dharma) The unchanging, everlasting truth that pervades
all realms of life. In a more mundane sense, the teachings of the Buddha.
Dukkha The unsatisfactory nature of all phenomena. This Pali term is often
translated as "suffering," which does not convey the full meaning of the word.
Literally, it is that which is difficult to
endure: du-difficult, kha-to endure.
Jhāna (Sanskrit: Dhyāna) Stages of
concentration in meditation. The
Buddha passed through successive
jhanas before he reached
enlightenment.
Kamma (Sanskrit: Karma) "Action."
The universal law that every deed has
a consequence that will come back to
the doer. The force that drives the cycle of rebirth.
Mahāyāna "Greater Vehicle." The form of Buddhism prevalent in Mongolia,
China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
Metta The virtue of loving kindness and friendliness toward all beings that is
cultivated by Buddhists. A quality of all Buddhas.
Nibbāna (Sanskrit: Nirvana) "Unbound." Liberation from the cycle of
samsara. The highest spiritual state one can attain. A blissful spiritual condition
in which the heart extinguishes passion, hatred, and delusion.
Pāli The language spoken by Gotama Buddha and his contemporaries. No
longer in use except as preserved in the Buddhist doctrines.
Pāli Canon another term for the Tipitaka, which is written in Pali.
Parinibbāna (Sanskrit: Parinirvāna) "Completed nibbana." The death of one
who is enlightened, never to be reborn again.
Samsārā The endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
Sangha The Buddhist monastic order. Literally translated as "group" or
"community." Also may refer to the lay community.
Sīla The observance of precepts of moral behavior, which lays the
foundation for the development of the mind through meditation.
Sutta (Sanskrit: Sūtra) A discourse of the Buddha. Mahayana and Vajrayana
Buddhism hold additional sutras of great spiritual teachers following the
Buddha.
Theravāda "Teachings of the Elders." The form of Buddhism that arose early
among Buddha's disciples. Also referred to as Hinayāna (Lesser Vehicle), a
derogatory term. Prevails in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand.
Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripitika) "Three Baskets." Refers to the set of three texts
that are central to Buddhist doctrine.
Vajrayāna "Diamond Vehicle." Tibetan Buddhism, which draws its origins
from a combination of Mahayana Buddhism and Hindu practices utilizing
Mantra and Tantra.
Basic Doctrines of Buddhism
The basic doctrines of Buddhism can be demonstrated in the following
concepts:
The Four Noble Truths
Realization of the Four Noble Truths is the first step on the path to cessation of
dukkha.
The First Noble Truth is the realization that all worldly phenomena are
dukkha, unsatisfactory. Every aspect of existence is ultimately fleeting and
unfulfilling, subject to birth, decay, disease, and death.
The Second Noble Truth is the cause of dukkha: craving for the pleasure of
the senses, which can never be fully satisfied, and aversion from pain.
The Third Noble Truth is the ending of dukkha. To be free of dukkha one
must extinguish this very craving so that no passion and desire remain.
The Fourth Noble Truth leads to the end of dukkha by way of the Eightfold
Path.
The Eightfold Path
The Eightfold Path is cyclic, forming a Wheel of Dhamma.
Each step on the path propels the seeker to the next step and perfection of
each quality reinforces the others.
Perfect Understanding (Sammā Ditthi) Also translated as Perfect Perception
or Perfect View. To develop an
understanding of the nature of the
world through the Four Noble
Truths.
Perfect Thought (Sammā
Sankappa) Avoiding cultivation of
jealous or angry thoughts.
Cultivating thoughts of goodwill
and renunciation.
Perfect Speech (Sammā Vācā)
Avoiding false speech, harsh
words, and mindless chatter.
Perfect Action (Sammā Kammanta) Conduct that is peaceful, honest, and
pure; includes observance of the Five Precepts.
Perfect Livelihood (Sammā Ājiva) Avoiding any livelihood that harms other
beings or involves intoxicants, such as a slaughterhouse or a bar.
Perfect Effort (Sammā Vāyāma) Determined discipline and cultivation of the
mind.
Perfect Mindfulness (Sammā Sati) Awareness of one's own actions, words,
and thoughts and the true nature of reality.
Perfect Concentration (Sammā Samādhi) To develop the ability to become
absorbed in one point or object, leading to higher states of consciousness.
Purification and concentration of the mind that lead to establishment in higher
states of consciousness.
Buddhist Precepts
There are five precepts commonly observed by Buddhists:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To avoid killing or harming any living being.
To avoid taking that which has not been given.
To avoid committing sexual misconduct.
To avoid using false words.
To avoid taking alcohol and other intoxicants.
Additional precepts apply to monks and nuns and may be taken by laypeople
on special occasions:
1. To eat moderately and only at the appropriate time.
2. To avoid dancing, singing, music, and bodily adornments.
3. To abstain from sleeping in luxurious beds.
Scriptures
In Theravada Buddhism, there are three groups of writings containing the
Buddha's teachings, known as the "Three Baskets" (Tipitaka). The Vinaya
Pitaka (discipline basket) contains precepts for monks and nuns; the Sutta
Pitaka (teaching basket) contains the discourses of Buddha; and the
Abidhamma Pitaka (metaphysical basket) contains Buddhist theology.
Mahayana and Vajrayana sects of Buddhism recognize hundreds of
additional sutras recorded by masters after the time of the Buddha. Some of the
most well-known are the Heart Sutra, the Diamond Sutra, and the Lotus Sutra.
The oldest scriptures are in Sanskrit, while others have been written in Tibetan
and Chinese.
Basic Beliefs of Animism
In anthropology, animism can be considered to be the original human religion,
being defined simply as belief in the existence of spiritual beings. It dates back
to the earliest humans and continues to exist today, making it the oldest form of
religious belief on Earth. It is characteristic of aboriginal and native cultures,
yet it can be practiced by anyone who believes in spirituality but does not
proscribe to any specific organized religion. The basis for animism is
acknowledgment that there is a spiritual realm which humans share the
universe with. The concepts that humans possess souls and that souls have life
apart from human bodies before and after death are central to animism, along
with the ideas that animals, plants, and celestial bodies have spirits.
Animistic gods often are immortalized by mythology explaining the
creation of fire, wind, water, man, animals, and other natural earthly
things. Although specific beliefs of animism vary widely, similarities
between the characteristics of gods and goddesses and rituals practiced by
animistic societies exist. The presence of holy men or women, visions,
trancing, dancing, sacred items, and sacred spaces for worship, and the
connection felt to the spirits of ancestors are characteristic of animistic
societies.
History of Christianity
Christianity is based upon the teachings of Jesus, a Jew who lived his life in
the Roman province of Palestine. Roman communications networks enabled
Christianity to spread quickly throughout the Roman empire and eventually to
the rest of Europe, and finally the entire globe.
As time progressed, Christianity divided into three major branches. The
Roman Catholic branch of Christianity is the successor of the church
established in Rome soon after Christ's death. It traces its spiritual history to the
early disciples of Jesus. The Pope, or spiritual leader, traces his office's lineage
back to St. Peter, the first Pope, one of Jesus' disciples. Roman Catholicism was
originally predominately practiced in Ireland, Poland, France and Spain.
During the fourth century, the Roman Catholic church split and the Eastern
Orthodox branch was formed.
The split was primarily a political one due to the division of the
Roman Empire into western and eastern components. The two
churches became officially separate in 1054. Orthodox
churches are largely national, each associated with a particular
country. Orthodoxy is common in Russia, Greece, Romania,
Bulgaria, the Ukraine, and Armenia.
The Protestant branch split from Roman Catholicism during
the Reformation, a sixteenth and seventeenth century series of
church reforms in doctrine and practice. This movement
'Romanian Church'
© MIT Orthodox
challenged the authority of the Pope, and became popular in
Christian Fellowship
Scandinavia, England, and the Netherlands. Protestantism
eventually divided into many denominations which arose in response to
disputes over doctrine, theology, or religious practice. Some of the large
denominations today are Lutherans, Methodists and Baptists.
Christianity Terms
Bible The sacred text which records the lives of major figures in Christianity, including
Jesus. Contains Old and New Testaments.
Christianity The belief in Jesus Christ as Savior of the world.
Christmas The celebration of the birth of Jesus held on December 25th.
Cross Roman method of execution which took the life of Jesus. Now a symbol of Jesus'
suffering and resurrection.
Easter The celebration of Jesus' triumphant return to life after dying on the cross.
Eastern Orthodoxy A branch of Christianity with national ties.
Jesus The central figure of Christianity, believed to be true God, who saved mankind
from the torture of hell by dying on the cross to grant them salvation.
Lent The remembrance of the period of time leading up to and including Christ's death
on the cross.
Mary Jesus' mother, who conceived him by the intervention of the Holy Spirit.
Pope The spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic church.
Protestantism The branch of Christianity which broke off from the Roman Catholic
church at the time of the Reformation.
Reformation A movement which resulted in the formation of the Protestant branch of
Christianity. A reforming of Christianity which eliminated certain doctrines and practices
of Catholicism which were deemed incorrect.
Roman Catholicism The original Christian religion which descended from the original
Christians in Rome at the time of Christ.
Basic Beliefs of Christianity
Christianity believes in one God, while the central figure
in Christianity is Jesus (or Christ), a Jew who came into
this world by immaculate conception to a virgin named
Mary. His birth is celebrated at Christmas with hymns
and gift giving. It's believed that Jesus was not only man, but
also the son of God and lived his life without sin.
During his lifetime, Jesus performed many miracles and
spoke to many people about his father in heaven. He was
arrested for claiming to be God's son and was hung on the
cross by the Romans at age 33. Christians believe that the
suffering and death upon the cross which this sinless man
endured paid for the sins of all mankind, and because of
Jesus' actions, salvation can be achieved by anyone who
believes in him. This act of sacrifice is remembered during
Lent.
Following his death, Christians believe that he rose from
the grave (celebrated at Easter) and returned to the earth,
appearing to his followers and telling them of the kingdom
of God to which he was going. He also promised his
disciples that he would return one day to bring all
believers with him to that kingdom, to enjoy eternal life in
the presence of God.
'Christ taken off cross' ©
MIT Orthodox Christian
Fellowship
Christians can read of the life of Jesus, as well as his
ancestors in the only Christian holy text, the Bible. It
consists of the Old Testament (which is also considered sacred to Judaism and
Islam) and the New Testament. The Old Testament chronicles the lives of Jews
and others who lived before Jesus, who had been promised a savior by God,
and were waiting for him. This text contains many stories about people
demonstrating faith in God and also provides historical information about the
era. The New Testament is unique to Christianity, for it centers around the
figure of Jesus and his effect on the world. Christians believe that Jesus is the
one that the Old Testament foretold, so instead of looking for a savior, they
await the return of Jesus so that he can take them to his kingdom, or heaven.
The beliefs of Christianity can be seen in the words of the Apostles' Creed, a
document which was written to distinguish Christianity from other religions
and show basic Christian doctrine in a concise manner.
The Apostle's Creed
I believe in God the Father Almighty,
Maker of heaven and earth.
And in Jesus Christ,
His only Son, our Lord;
Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
Born of the Virgin Mary,
Suffered under Pontius Pilate,
Was crucified, died and was buried.
He descended into hell;
The third day He rose again from the dead;
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
From there He shall come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
The holy Christian Church,
The Communion of Saints,
the Forgiveness of sins,
The Resurrection of the body,
And the Life everlasting.
Amen.
The History of Hinduism
The term "Hinduism" was coined by Greek and
Persian travelers to the Indus Valley in the 16th
century. Though many Hindus have adopted the
name for themselves, they also use the terms
"Veda," or "Vedic religion," which refer to the
ancient texts at the core of the tradition, or
Sanatana Dharma (Eternal Law).
Hinduism originated in the Indus Valley in
modern Pakistan. The Vedic texts were not
written by any single person, but "heard" by
rishis, or seers, and passed down orally until
they were recorded in writing. The oldest of the
texts is the Rigveda (Wisdom of the Verses), a
collection of 1028 hymns thought to have been
recorded around 1500-1200 BCE. Other
important Vedic texts include the Yajurveda (Wisdom of Sacrificial Formulas),
Samaveda (Wisdom of Chants), and Ataravaveda (Wisdom of Atharvan
Priests) were also recorded. The Upanisads, secret teachings concerning cosmic
equations, were recorded from 1000-600 BCE. From the 2nd century BCE to
the 4th century CE two great Hindu epics were recorded: the Ramayana and the
Mahabarata. The Mahabarata contains the Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord")
that describes three paths to salvation: the path of duties (karma-marga), the
path of knowledge (jnana-marga), and the path of devotion (bhakti-marga).
Though the Upanisads emphasized renunciation and asceticism, these later
dharma texts emphasize that these three paths can be used simultaneously for
the maintenance of the world order (dharma) and release from the the world
(moksha). Thus the goal for many Hindus is an equilibrium between social and
ritual duties and maintenance of the stability of the cosmos.
For a long time it was popularly believed that the Vedas originated from an
Aryan people who invaded the the ancient Harappan civilization of India
around 1500 B.C. However, there is no literary or archeological support for the
theory, which has become associated with the racist ideology of colonialism.
Hindu Terms
Ātman The real self, the eternal life principle
which underlies physical human form.
Brahmā The god of creation. A member of the
triad (trimūrti) of principle gods, which
includes Visnu and Siva.
Brahman The Ultimate Reality that underlies all of existence.
Dharma "Law," or "Truth" that is eternal and all-encompassing. The order of
the universe and the way to maintain that
order.
Karma "Action." The universal law that every deed has a consequence that
will come back to the doer. Good actions will reap good life circumstances and
bad ones will do the opposite. The cumulative effect of one's karma can
influence one's position in future rebirths.
Mahaābhārta A national epic of India.
Māyā "Supernatural power." The power that produces the phenomena of
physical existence.
Moksha "Release," or "Liberation" from the cycle of endless death and rebirth.
The ultimate goal of Hinduism which is attained by overcoming ignorance and
desire.
Purānas "Ancient." Non-Vedic Hindu scripture containing mythological
accounts of ancient times. It is thought they were compiled between 500 and
1500 CE.
Pūjā "Respect, homage, worship." The offering of food, flowers, incense, and
other items to a deity. Often the food will be distributed and consumed
afterword and is thought to impart the goodwill of the deity.
Samsāra "Wandering." The continuous cycle of death and reincarnation caused
by karma.
Siva "Auspicious." A god of the Hindu trinity that is simultaneously creator,
destroyer, and preserver. His creative powers come to life in conjunction with
Sakti, his female aspect. He is the supreme yogi and lord of the animals.
Upanishad Literally, "To sit close by," referring to the method of transmission
from guru to student. Part of the Vedic texts containing esoteric teachings on
the nature of the self (atman) as one with the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) and
the way to liberation from the cycle of samsara.
Veda "Knowledge." The scriptures that are the basis of Hindu belief and
practice. The Vedas were "heard" or "seen" by priests from a divine source and
passed orally through the family line.
Visnu "The pervador." A god of the Hindu trinity that preserves the universe
and embodies goodness and mercy.
Yoga "Yoking, joining." The path to liberation from samsara through focusing
the mind to experience higher states of consciousness.
References
Basic Beliefs of Hinduism
"When you hear about the Self, meditate upon the Self, and finally realize the Self,
you come to understand everything in life."
-Brihadaranyaka Upanisad 4.5
Hinduism is a diverse religion found primarily in India.
There is variation in local practices and the worship of
particular deities. However, there are central tenants that
unify it as one religion. The core of Hinduism is the belief
in Brahman, the underlying
universal life force that
encompasses and embodies
existence. According to Hindu
scriptures, one's ignorance of
the true
nature of
the self
(atman) as
one with
Brahman is
what traps
one in the
cycle of
endless
death and
reincarnation (samsara). Thus, the highest goal of Hinduism is liberation
(moksha) from the karmic cycle of death and rebirth.
Hindus are very conscious of the paradoxes that make up the universe. Siva is
simultaneously the creator, maintainer, and destroyer of life. All phenomena is
a constant interplay between hot and cold, male and female, light and dark.
Vedic medicine teaches that keeping these opposing forces in balance is central
to the maintenance of bodily, social, and cosmic well-being.
However, Hinduism is much more than an esoteric practice. For the millions of
people who practice this religion, it is a way of life that encompasses family,
society, politics, business, art, and health behaviors. The sacred scriptures
contain instructions on all these aspects of life and have a strong influence on
art and drama. While the practices of yoga are a well-known aspect of
Hinduism, family life is also considered a sacred duty.
Most households have a shrine to a particular deity. Women conduct a
household puja, the offering of fruit, raw rice, flowers, incense, and other items
to the deity, on a regular basis. Visitors may be invited to join the puja on
occasion, making it a communal event. After the food has been offered it is
considered to have been spiritually consumed and blessed by the deity's power.
It is then redistributed and consumed by the participants as a way of receiving
the deity's blessings.
The belief that one's karma determines one's birth in the next life has supported
the structure of the caste system in India, made up of four varnas that
determine one's occupation: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (nobles and
warriors), Vaishyas (commoners) and Sudras (servants). Though the former
colonial government officially abolished the caste system and implemented
affirmative action policies to rectify imbalances in wealth and education, there
are still socioeconomic advantages to belonging to a higher caste. The
hierarchy of caste is a contested subject. While the concept of caste is
supported in certain scriptures, there is evidence in the Upanisads that
Brahmanhood is attained by depth of learning rather than birth. The tradition of
bhakti (devotion) is sometimes an expression of criticism against caste and
other practices such as image worship. Bhakti is associated with devotional
poems composed across all social classes and emphasizes loving God over any
practice or doctrine.