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Transcript
Animal Form and Function Chapter 40 Tissuesorgansorgan systems • Epithelial – Sheets, tightly packed, protective barrier, outside or inside • Connective – Supports, binds;cells within a matrix, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bone and blood • Muscle – Actin and myosin; smooth (visceral), skeletal, cardiac – Nervous – Neuron, senses stimuli, transmits signals Feedback control loops • Homeostasis – Set point; detect stimulus above or below and return to set point • Negative – Response to reduce stimulus; body temp rises, sweat evaporating cools • Positive – Mechanisms amplify rather that reverse ex. childbirth Thermoregulation • Endotherms – Warmed by heat generated by metabolism • Ectotherms – Gain heat from external sources (behavior) • Countercurrent exchange – Antiparallel arrangement of blood vessels that warm blood from core transfers heat to blood from extremities Animal Nutrition Chapter 41 Essential Nutrients-required by animal-must get from diet about half of amino acids fatty acids-linoleic acid vitamins-B and E minerals-calcium and phosphorus Food Processing • • • • • • • Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination Intracellular vs extracellular digestion Gastrovascular cavity Alimentary canals-complete digestive tract • • • • • • • • • • Peristalsis Sphincters Oral cavity Amylase Bolus Pharynx Epiglottis Esophagus Stomach Gastric juice – Hydrochloric acid – pepsin • Acid chyme • Small intestine – Duodenum • bicarbonate fluid, bile Chemical Digestion Carbohydrates Starch and glycogen begin in mouth-salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase disaccharide maltosemonosaccharides Proteins • • • • • • Pepsin Trypsin Chymotrypsin Dipeptidases Carboxypeptidase Aminopeptidase Absorption • • • • Villi Microvilli Lacteal Hepatic portal vessel Hormones • Gastrin • Enterogastrone • Secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) Large intestine • • • • Colon Cecum Appendix Rectum Evolutionary adaptations • Dentition • Length of digestive tract Circulation and Gas Exchange • Chapter 42 Problem of Exchange • Gastrovascular cavity • Circulatory system – Blood – Vessels – Heart 2 kinds of systems • Open – Fluid bathes organs – Hemolymph – sinuses • Closed – Stays in vessels Vessels • Arteries • Veins • Capillaries Variations in animals • • • • Fish Amphibians Reptiles Mammals and birds Double Circulation • • • • • • • Vena cava R atrium Tricuspid valve R ventricle Pulmonary semilunar valve Pulmonary artery Lungs pulmonary vein left atrium bicuspid valve left ventricle aortic semilunar aorta Cardiac Cycle • Systole • Diastole • Heart rate – Affected by 3 factors-sympathetic nerves speed up; parasympathetic slows; epinephrine increases as does hi body temp • SA node • AV node • Blood pressure Lymphatic system • Lymph • Lymph nodes Blood • Plasma • RBCs-erythrocytes-hemoglobin – Biconcave disks-increases surface area; each contains 250 million molecules of hemoglobin-each binds 4 molecules of oxygen • WBCs-leukocytes • platelets Gas Exchange • Uptake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide • Partial pressure • Respiratory medium • Respiratory surface – Moist – Surface area/volume ratio – Closely associated with vascular system • • • • • • • • Gills Countercurrent exchange Tracheal systems Lungs Larynx Trachea Bronchi-bronchioles Alveoli Breathing • • • • Diaphragm Intercostals Control Carbonic acid Pigments • Hemoglobin-respiratory pigment in most vertebrates • Bohr shift-lowering of pH in blood lowers affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen • CO2 carried in form of bicarbonate ions (70%), 23% carried by hemoglobin and 7% in solution of plasma • Carbonic anhydrase-enzyme in RBCs –catalyzes formation of carbonic acid-dissociates into bicarbonate ion and H ion. As Blood pH drops, rate and depth of respiration will increase Immune System Chap 43 • Innate Immune Response – Barrier • Skin, mucous membranes • Secretions-keep pH of skin 3-5; lysozyme – Cellular • Phagocytic WBC – Neutrophils-ingest-phagocytosis – Monocytes-dev into macrophages – Eosinophils-against parasites • Antimicrobial proteins – Interferon – Complement system – Inflammatory response-histamines – Natural Killer Cells Acquired immunity • • • • • • • • • Antigens AntibodiesB cells T cells Clonal selection Effector cells Memory cells APCs-aka dendritic cells MHCs – Class I MHCs-found on all cells except RBCs – Class II MHCs-made by dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells • • • • Responses Primary Secondary Humoral Cell-mediated – Helper T – Cytotoxic T – Interleukin I-(type of cytokine)made by macrophages to activate HelperT – Interleukin II-made by HelperT to stimulate immune response • • • • Active immunity Passive immunity Antigens on blood cellsblood type MHCs-organ rejection • Allergies • Autoimmune • Immune deficiency Osmoregulation and Excretion Chap 44 • Osmoregulation-control solute concentrations and balance water gain & loss • Nitrogenous waste-metabolic breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids • Excretion-remove nitrogenous waste • Transport epithelia-regulate water balance and waste disposal Types of N waste • Ammonia-water soluble and toxic-aquatic • Urea-made by liver of most vertebrates; combined with carbon dioxide-less toxic, water conserved • Uric acid-insoluble in water-excreted in paste or crystals-birds&reptiles-can be stored in shelled eggs-not harmful to young Survey • Protonephridia/flame-bulb systemplatyhelminthes • Metanephridia-annelida • Malpighian tubules-insects & terrestrial arthropods • Kidneys-vertebrates Processes • • • • • Filtration-glomerulus Reabsorption-proximal and distil tubules Secretion-proximal tubules Excretion-filtrate leaves body-urethra Flow of filtrate in loop of Henle-countercurrent exchange Parts page 944 • Regulation • ADH-made in hypothalamus-stored and released from pituitary; keeps water • Aldosterone-kidneys absorb more Na, so saves water—helps blood volume and pressue • Renin-enzyme from kidney-activates angiotension II • Angiotensin II-acts as hormone, causes arterioles to constrict; makes adrenals release more aldosterone Hormones and Endocrine System Chapter 45 Kinases “turn on” processes Phosphotases “turn off” processes • Endocrine system-all hormone-secreting cells and tissues • Endocrine glands-ductless-hormones directly into blood • Hormones-chemical signalsresponse in target cells • Positive and negative feedback Cell Signaling • Cell-surface receptors bind hormone & signal transduction pathway is triggered. – Ex. Epinephrineliver cellscascadeglycogen glucose • Intracellular receptors-bound by hormones that are lipid soluble. Receptor acts as transcription factorgene expression – Ex. Estrogen enter nuclei of target cell and stimulate transcription of certain genes. • Hormones can affect 1 tissue, a few tissues, most of the tissues, or other endocrine glandstropic hormones. Hormonal system of communication • Exocrine-put into a duct or tube • Endocrine-put into blood • Neurosecretory-released by neuronhypothalamus Local Hormones • Growth factors-cause cell replication • Nitric Oxide-from neuron-inhibits process • -from WBC-kills pathogen • -from endothelium of blood vesselcauses surrounding smooth muscle to dilate-relax • Prostaglandins-inflammatory response & muscle contraction • Cytokines-relay messages between WBC’s about pathogens Hormone reception by cells • Ligand(hormone) attaches to receptor proteinssignal transduction pathway – Pathway ends in cytoplasm-turn on/off enzyme – Pathway ends in nucleus- turn on/off transcription • Steroid hormones go through bilayer-don’t need 2nd messengers Hormonal control mechanisms • Negative feedback loops • Positive feedback loops Hormones • Can affect – – – – 1 tissue A few tissues Most of the tissues Other endocrine glands (tropic hormones) The “Big Dogs” • Hypothalamus- “Calls the shots”receives info from body and brain-initiates endocrine signals in response • Pituitary-”Carries out orders” – Posterior • oxytocin-uterus contraction; let down of milk • ADH-keep water • Anterior pituitary – – – – – – FSH-ovary or testes-form ova or sperm LH-stimulates ovaries or testes TSH-thyroid ACTH-adrenal cortex-secretes glucocorticoids GH-growth and metabolic functions Prolactin-milk production and secretion Thyroid • T3 -stimulate and maintain metabolic processes • T4 • Calcitonin-lowers blood calcium Parathyroid glands • PTH –Parathyroid hormone-raises blood calcium Pancreas • Insulin-lowers blood glucose level • Glucagon-raises blood glucose level Adrenal glands • Adrenal medulla-epinephrine and norepinephrine-raise blood glucose; increase metabolic act.; Constricts certain blood vessels • Adrenal cortex – Mineralcorticoids-promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys; – Glucocorticoids-raises blood glucose level Gonads • Testes-Androgens-support sperm formation; secondary sex characteristics • Ovaries-estrogens-uterine lining growth; secondary sex characteristics – Progestins-promote uterine lining growth Pineal gland • Melatonin-biological rhythms Negative feedback-more gets you less • Know at least one example – Thyroid-parathyroid – Pancreas-glucagon and insulin Positive feedback • More gets you more • Oxytocin/prostaglandins Animal Reproduction Chapter 46 • • • • • SexualOvum + sperm = zygote Asexual-fission Budding-hydra Fragmentation-sea stars, sponges, cnidarians Parthenogenesis-unfertilized eggsmale beeshaploid Triggers to reproduction • Ovulation-cyclical-young produced only when viable (day length, temp, rainfall, lunar cycles) • Hermaphroditism-barnacles, tapeworms • Sex reversal-bluehead wrasse-if male dies, largest female in harem will become male Fertilization-union of sperm and egg • External ferilization • Internal fertilization • Gonads Female anatomy Ovaries-make eggs and hormones Follicles-contain oocytes-release estrogens • Ovulation-release of egg from follicle • Oviduct-moves egg • Endometrium-inner lining of uterus • Cervix-neck of uterus • Vagina-canal through which baby comes Male anatomy • • • • Scrotum and penis-external structure Testes-male gametes and sex hormones Seminiferous tubules-where sperm are made Leydig cells-produce testosterone and other androgens • Epididymis-where sperm mature • Vas deferens-take sperm to urethra • Seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethralcontribue secretions to semen Spermatogenesis-seminifereous tubules; sperm begin as spermatogonia 4 sperm result occurs continuously Oogenesis-development oogoniaprimary oocytessecondary oocyte – 1 egg results – Begins prior to female’s birth – Meiosis not completed until after fertilization Humans and primates have menstrual cycles. Other mammals-estrous cycles • 1. Menstrual flow phase-endometrium shed • 2. Proliferative phase-endometrium begins to regenerate • 3. Secretory phase-endometrium continues to thicken Ovarian cycle • Follicular phase • Luteal phase Pregnancy • Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)-made by embryo; maintains the secretion of progesterone and estrogens; detected in urine • Gestation-carrying embryo in utereus • Parturition-birth Fertilization • Contact • Acrosomal reaction • Fusion of sperm and egg membraneion channels open-fast block to polyspermy• Entry of sperm nucleus • Cortical reactionfertilization envelope-slow block to polyspermy • Calcium ion releaseactivation of egg • Cleavage – Blastomeres – Morula – Blastula-blastocoel • Gastrulation – Blastopore Archenteron – Ectoderm-skin, lens of eye,nervous system – Mesoderm-skeletal and muscular, excretory, circulatory,reproductive, blood, bone, muscle – Endoderm • Epithelial linings, liver, pancreas • • • • Organogenesis-notochord Neural plate Neurulation Somites Amniote eggs • 4 extraembryonic membranes – – – – Amnion-protects Allantois-disposal sac for waste Chorion-exchange gases Yolk sac-nutrients Mammalian blastocyst • ] Inner cell massembryo • Trophoblast--.fetal portion of placenta • Cytoplasmic determinants-chemical signals such as mRNAs and transcription factors • Induction-interaction among cells that influences their fate by causing changes in gene expression • Dorsal lip of blastopore-”organizer” which induces a series of events that result information of notochord and neural tube Totipotent Cells • Capable of developing into all the different cell types of that species • Mammalian embryos remain totipotent until 16 cell stage Muscle Contraction • Neuronacetylcholinesarcoplasmic reticulumCa+bond with troponin which pulls the tropomyosin away from the actin binding site. With ATP, the myosin head is in the high energy position. The myosin head connects with the actin binding site and muscle contraction occurs.
