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ACES 2011: Conservation Conflicts: strategies for coping with a changing world. Aberdeen Arts Centre, August 22-25th ABSTRACTS Posters 1 The eco politics of managing invasive species: European rabbits and Robben Island, Western Cape, South Africa : Brian Reilly Robben Island holds a very significant place in the National psyche in South Africa due to its association with recent political history. It has become an ecotourist haven and as with many islands its ecology has been severely disturbed by the introduction of exotic fauna and flora. Its classification as a world heritage site, with the commensurate regulations on the removal of exotic species has seen its elevation to the political football in the struggle between preservation and conservation in the tabloid press and emotional outbursts with reference to removal of exotic fauna. Rabbits were introduced to Robben Island by passing sailors in the seventeenth century and today together with other alien fauna and flora pose a serious threat to the unique vegetation and associated fauna (particularly marine avifauna) of the island. European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are considered alongside the ship rat (Rattus rattus), feral pig and cane toad to be amongst the biggest threats to environments where they have been introduced. Foremost amongst these examples was that of their introduction to Australia in the mid nineteenth century and subsequent efforts at their eradication. Wildlife Management in South Africa: Future challenges : Brian Reilly South Africa with its enormous diversity of plants, animals, charismatic megafauna as well as the fossil remains of the progenitors of modern man are of international importance to the conservation community. The ancient savannah biomes present a uniquely challenging prospect for ecological management and protected areas such as the iconic Kruger National Park apply some of the most modern adaptive management processes to this challenge. This given that South Africa itself is the 3rd most diverse country on the planet with 10% of the global plant, fish and bird diversity and 6% of the mammal and reptile diversity on less than 1% of the surface area. The grassland biome of South Africa is under enormous pressure from mining, agriculture, forestry and water abstraction whilst the unique Cape “fynbos” with the plethora of endemic species faces increasing challenges. Conservation and wildlife management take place against a neighbouring political backdrop of corruption, nepotism and paranoia ranging from the poorest economies such as Mozambique to a failed Zimbabwe, stable Botswana and Namibia and South Africa with its unique post apartheid challenges. 2 Human-jaguar conflict in northeaster Mexico: analysis of economic losses, peoples’ perceptions and knowledge of the species and construction of conservation strategies: J Pena-Mondragon & A Castillo-Alvarez Mexico is a mega diverse country harboring an amazing number of plant and animal species. Among carnivores, jaguars are the largest cat in the American continent and a species highly valued by ancient and present indigenous cultures. It is a species very much studied in southern Mexico but studies of northern Mexico are scarce. Most studies also contribute to understanding the biology and ecology of jaguar’s populations. However, interdisciplinary analyses that consider the complex social factors involved in jaguar conservation are uncommon. In this context, the present research aims at generating scientific information on economic losses caused by jaguars in two municipalities of the Sierra Plegada in north-eastern Mexico. Documenting rural people as well as governmental authorities at the local, state and federal levels is also a central objective of the project. As in other areas of the continent, jaguars survival is threaten by decrease in its natural habitats due to land use changes (in Mexico the area has been reduced by over 70% of its historic range) and by activities such as hunting, either as a way to supplement rural peoples’ income (poaching) or because it kills domestic animals such as cattle. The study was carried out from 2009 to 2011. We interviewed 80 people of 50 rural communities and 6 governmental officers. For estimating economic losses and documenting peoples’ knowledge of the species, we conducted a survey (with open and closedended questions). Semi-structured interviews were also used to gather information about perceptions of the species and its conservation problems and challenges. The survey was analyzed through descriptive statistics. Results show that between 1992 and present time 2007 killing events were registered by interviewees. Economic losses were estimated in US$41 981.00. Regarding peoples’ perceptions and knowledge, it was found that most interviewees see jaguar as a dangerous and nonbeneficial animal. In this part of Mexico jaguars are not part of a cultural history and identity. Results show also that rural and governmental authorities do not know the biology of the species and the understanding of its ecological role is poor. In order to construct solutions for ranchers in terms of diminishing jaguar’s killings on cattle and to raise awareness about jaguar long term maintenance, workshops have been organized in rural communities in the two municipalities. Only through collective participation and negotiations among different stakeholders would be possible to construct alternative ways of managing environmental conflicts. 3 Hidden degú, crouching human: Making unseen nature visible to conservation in Chile. : Meredith Root-Bernstein The Central Zone of Chile is characterized by a mediterranean climate, high species endemicity and biodiversity, urban overdevelopment, and the smallest number of national parks of any part of the country. The typical landscape of the central zone, although the most familiar to most Chileans, is least liked, and people are more likely to recognise introduced European species than native ones. Nature in the Central Zone is ignored in public discourse and unobserved by the city-dwelling, policymaking classes. During ethnographic surveys and participant observation I asked how unseen nature-- hidden rodents, the unnoticed greenness of hills in winter, the intimate beauty of chaparral biodiversity-- are experienced and discovered by Chileans. I interviewed residents of Santiago who had grown up in the countryside, moved to the rural suburbs, or who vacationed in summer houses in the Central Zone. I also interviewed and spent time with ecologists, conservationists, and nature lovers. All of these groups had different ways of interacting with nature, some of which resulted in ignoring the landscape and its species, and others which enacted an intimate attention to them. I discuss how the ‘empty landscapes’ and ‘nameless inhabitants’ of the Central Zone could be given a greater profile in the Chilean context. In order for a conflict to occur between conservation and development, not to mention a compromise, nature must be noticed and experienced. Conservation conflicts in Koala management in Framlingham Forest, Victoria, Australia : Robert Wallis The Koala is an iconic, charismatic marsupial species indigenous to eastern Australia. Its conservation status varies considerably across Australia, from vulnerable in Queensland and NSW where its numbers and distribution have declined markedly, to secure in Victoria where it regularly over-browses its food sources and must be managed. 30 Koalas were introduced into Framlingham Forest, in south-western Victoria, in 1971. Koalas are not thought to have previously existed in this forest. Their numbers grew exponentially till few of its preferred food trees (Manna Gums) were left alive. Over 1000 animals were captured in 1998/99, the males sterilised and all translocated to other sites in Victoria. In 2007 a fire was deliberately lit in the forest that killed many Koalas. Over 200 badly burned and injured Koalas were rescued by wildlife carers. 4 Human-Wildlife Conflict Toolkit: A comprehensive solutions for farmers and local communities in Africa : Sebestian le Bel Human-wildlife conflict is a growing global problem. It is not restricted to a particular geographical region or climate condition, but is common to all areas where wildlife and human populations coexist and share limited resources. Human-wildlife conflict is a problem for farmers, and ultimately it must be tackled by the farmers themselves. However, although numerous research articles, reports, recommendations, guidelines and training manuals have been produced in recent years to address the problem, most have been aimed at technical support agencies, government wildlife departments, and conservation and/or development oriented non-governmental organizations. Few tools have been developed for and adopted by rural farmers and communities to help them to address human wildlife conflicts at grass roots level. In Southern Africa, FAO and Bio-Hub have teamed up to develop a handy toolkit designed for use by extensionists offering to local communities a range of simple and practical solutions that can have great success when used in combination. It is designed not only to help protect people, their livestock and their crops from wild animals but, just as important, to safeguard wild animals from people. Two types of toolkit, an electronic and a hard version, are available in three languages: English, Portuguese and French. The hard version is a rubber canvas bag containing a series of water proof booklets, helping users to define which kind of conflict they are facing. Solutions vary according to whether the need is to protect people, villages, livestock, water or crops and are classified in five colour-coded categories: awareness raising in blue, access prevention in green, translocation in brown, driving animals away in yellow and as a last resort lethal control in red. A system of index identifies solutions in each of the five colour categories according to what it is the user needs to protect. In total, more than one thousand toolkits were distributed during the workshops for field tests with local communities in Botswana, Gabon, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The toolkit is designed in a way that more information can be added or slotted in and this exercise is an own going one, meaning for the next years to come, funding permitting, the toolkit will be reviewed and added with more information. 5 Reform or reversal : the implications of post 2013 CAP proposals for Redd in Latin America : Kaysara Khatun and Elena Ojea In the European Union (EU), the CAP has an ambivalent legacy, in that the EU economy is distorted in favour of agricultural production and this has had the direct impact of causing a reduction on a broader scale on sectors such as fisheries and forestry in and outside the EU. Most of the distortions external to the EU are caused by tariffs associated with the CAP and not by its subsidies (Costa et al. 2009). One of the most severe extra-European effects are in Latin America, and hence the focus of this paper; resulting in a welfare decrease in the region of €4.4 billion with the price movements inducing some of the largest contractions in the livestock sectors, whose output is depressed by 12.7% . The largest contributor to this welfare loss is the border protection component of the CAP (Costa et al. 2009). On the other hand, the absence of tariffs for importation has evolved to a situation where EU farmers cheaply import animal feed from Latin America, including soy beans that are amongst the main cause for deforestation in the Amazon (Soares-Filho et al., 2006). There exists a huge potential for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD and REDD+) in Latin America, however to realize this potential, there is a need to create an environment that promotes low-risk carbon emissions reduction opportunities. These mechanisms can also deliver multiple benefits, in addition to mitigating climate change, REDD/REDD+ can support livelihoods, maintain vital ecosystem services, and preserve globally significant biodiversity (CBD, 2009). The conditions under which REDD/ REDD+ are likely to succeed are still very much in the evolving phase. 6 Crop raiding patterns by male and female elephant groups in the Amboseli Ecosystem : Winnie Kiiru and Bob Smith Crop raiding is one of the most widespread forms of human-elephant conflict and previous studies have shown that male elephants are more likely to raid crops than females because they are more willing to take risks. This study, conducted in the Loitokitok farmlands near Amboseli National Park in South East Kenya, recorded elephant crop raiding activity over a period of two years. The crop raiding elephants in this study were carefully observed to establish the sex composition of the groups. The study established that both male and female elephants raided crops at night, with slight variations in their circadian patterns. The seasonal distribution of raids also varied between the two groups, as males were present on the farms all year round while female raids were recorded during the main cropping season. The study also found that male elephants were responsible for more crop raiding incidents than females. However, females spent more ‘elephant hours’ in the farms as the groups were larger and they were ultimately responsible for a higher percentage of the total area damaged than males. The type of crop grown, the size of the crop raiding group and the duration of the raid were the most important determinants of the severity of the raids. The spatial distribution of crop raiding events was also influenced by group composition with some areas being predominantly visited by female groups. This study proposes that female groups can be as important in crop raiding as males and so conflict mitigation strategies should account for the behaviour of both sexes. 7 Food base of hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) across Ethiopia entirely anthropogenic : Gidey Yirga, Hans Bauer and Jozef Deckers Livestock depredation by spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is anecdotally known to occur widely across Ethiopia; we have previously published on hyena diet in one small area showing an absence of natural prey. Here we report on an extensive survey of depredation in 14 areas across the country, in four regional states. We quantified the economic impact of spotted hyena predation on livestock using semi structure interview with 3,080 randomly selected households. Respondents indicated a total loss of 2,230 domestic animals to hyena predation over the past five years. On average, hyena depredation claimed 5.3% of range stock. This depredation represented an estimated financial loss of about US$ 157,474 or a mean annual mean damage of US$ 31,497. The diet of hyenas was assessed by scat analysis and showed only prey items of domestic origin; frequencies of prey remains of cattle, donkey, goat and sheep were highest, in decreasing order. Some hairs in scat originate from depredation, but most food intake is from waste dumps and slaughterhouses. Survival of hyenas in Ethiopia is thus largely and widely dependent on conflict and waste management. Efficient livestock management practices should be practiced by the local communities for mitigation of livestock predation and looking for options that might benefit local communities is important to enhance tolerance for depredation 8 The spatial distribution of forest in an agriculturally-dominated flat, fertile region (Denmark). Geophysical explanatory variables : Mette Vestergaard Odgaard, Tommy Dalgaard, Peder Klith Bøcher and Jens-Christian Svenning Nature areas tend to be biased towards areas with high altitudes, steep slopes, infertile soils, and far from human activity. This indicates that these areas are deliberately located at remote areas not suitable for agriculture and urbanization, and they could play an important role as refugia for the global biodiversity. The remoteness of nature areas has been thoroughly investigated at mountainous regions but it is unclear to what extent geophysical variables constrain the distribution of forest in less mountainous regions. For a small, fertile, and topographical relatively homogenous region (Denmark) it is assessed to what extent, if at all, nature areas exemplified with forest is determined by geophysical variables (described by relative extremes of elevation, slope, roughness, wetness index, and clay percentage in the soil). For preliminary analysis, each variable was divided into categorical zones and within each zone the forest area compared to total land area was calculated. Linear regression analyses were made for all categorized variables and the forest cover. Furthermore it was assessed at which analytic cell size slope gave the highest explanatory power on the spatial location of forest. The preliminary results indicate a significant positive effect of elevation, slope, and clay. Furthermore there was a decrease in the explanatory power of slope with increase in cell size. Therefore, for a topographical relatively homogenous region the location of forest shows a remote tendency. 9 The disturbance of capercaillie by people in Speyside, Scotland : Fiona Leckie, Robert Moss, Amanda Biggins, Tim Poole, Kenny Kortland and Sorrel Jones The woodlands of Speyside are used by wildlife and, increasingly, by people for recreation and housing. Most of the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) remaining in Scotland are in Speyside and the Cairngorms National Park, but it is thought that disturbance by people and their dogs reduces the birds’ living space. The evidence, however, is mostly anecdotal. Studying the distribution of capercaillie and people by direct observation is time-consuming and expensive. This study is using the distribution of capercaillie droppings to indicate their use of woodland, along with tracks and woodland entrances as surrogates for disturbance. The results should be used to inform the zoning of woodlands for housing, recreation or capercaillie living space. Three woods on Speyside known to contain populations of capercaillie and used for recreation by people were chosen. In subjective order of disturbance these were: Anagach Woods (by Grantown on Spey), Boat of Garten Wood, and Glenmore Forest Park. The distribution of capercaillie droppings was mapped by surveyors walking parallel transects 100 m apart. Tracks were mapped using a GPS, classed according to subjective use categories, and entered into a GIS. Use categories depended upon a track’s physical characteristics and local knowledge. 10 From conflict to cooperation in the Polish National Parks and their neighbourhood in a views of different stakeholders – a long way ahead? : Joanna Olko, Magdalena Hędrzak, Joanna Cent and Alicja Subel National parks together with the other forms of protected areas are very important in species and landscape preservation. They have a national importance and recognition, and even what is more important, so called ‘national ownership’. This has been used both as an argument and counterargument for their protection. In the national parks, the national reasons and needs are crossing with the regional and the local ones. Regardless of their environmental goals, their existence influences not only wildlife, but also the people who live and work in the adjacent areas. On the one hand, implementation of nature protection regulations may restrict peoples’ activity, in accordance with conservational goals. On the other hand, national parks can be used for promotion of the region or in other indirect way contribute to the well-being of local citizens. In this way, national parks are the common ground that connects many groups: local communities, local governments, hunters, foresters and national park employees. They live, use and manage the same or neighbouring land. Current relations between national parks and groups of relevant stakeholders are, among other factors, results of 1) interests of actors, that potentially might be in conflict, 2) activities improving understanding and cooperation, undertaken by any of the actors, 3) historical and political background influencing contemporary relations. The goal of this paper is to assess current relations between stakeholder and listed condition that improve or hinder good cooperation in two chosen case studies. The special focus was given to the third factor, which proven to be especially important during the research 11 Tourism and ecosystem services in the Jalisco coast, Mexico: from conflicts to catastrophes? : Alicia Castillo, Lucia Martínez, Marion Rienshe and Adriana Flores Mexico is number one destination for foreign tourists within the Latin America region and number two in the American continent. Puerto Vallarta, on the Pacific coast in the state of Jalisco, is second place in the country. This coast has beautiful beaches and landscapes. Apart from Puerto Vallarta, the rest of the coast has had a slow tourism development although it has been seen for decades as an activity that could bring economic benefits. In the Costa Alegre area which was given this name in 1962 as a way to promote tourism development, at present there is an offer that includes 92 private houses and mansions, 8 great class hotels (owned and visited mainly by wealthy and foreign people), one five stars hotel, seven three stars hotels and 25 economic lodging houses. Prices for mansions at sale in this coast range from five to twenty million US dollars. Most of these units had been built in the last 40 years and total number of rooms has been estimated in less than one thousand. However, new resorts are now proposed, most based on a massive tourism model. These projects include the construction of three times more the present number of hotel rooms, golf courts, artificial lakes, beach clubs and a pier for more than 150 yachts. On the other hand, natural ecosystems in this area include numerous rivers with mangroves in estuaries and tropical dry forests. These forests are rich in biodiversity and present high numbers of endemic species. In 1993, the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve was decreed to protect 13,142 hectares. Most lands, nevertheless, belong to peasant communities and their lands present also good forest cover. The aim of this presentation is to show how the tourism industry is based on ecosystem services provided by peasants’ lands and the protected area and how the industry benefits from them causing conflicts among stakeholders and without paying back any economic reward to those whose lands provide the services. Water for example is the main limiting factor for ecosystem functioning as well as for human activities and while in the tourist areas, scenes include swimming pools and all year green lawns; for local inhabitants and peasants the service is scarce and people pay high costs for it. If tourism is to follow a massive model in this region conflicts will increase opening also the possibilities for ecological and social catastrophes in the near future. 12 Towards an understanding of the relevant factors determining the behaviour of communities in or adjacent to protected areas: Aderjan Botha Throughout the world, and especially Africa, negative and intrusive behaviour of communities is arguably the greatest threat to conservation of wildlife and protected areas. The conservation status of protected areas depends, apart from environmental factors, such as climatic conditions, largely on sound management. Protected area management includes not only the management of natural resources but also the actions or behaviour of neighbouring communities. The management of conflicts amongst the various stakeholders forms an integral part of protected area management. Many programmes directed at neighbouring communities (developmental, law enforcement or anti-poaching and even education or extension) seem to be ineffective as undesirable and illegal behaviour seems to continue unabated throughout the world. The conservation status of wildlife and protected areas appears to be largely dependent on the conservation and or utilization behaviour (human actions – legal or illegal) of people within or adjacent to protected areas and the buffer zones where applicable. This behaviour of people can in turn be directly attributed to the adoption of conservation or sustainable utilization practices. To resolve negative human behaviour as the problem, fundamental root causes have to be investigated by means of scientific situation analysis. The proposed methodology to identify the relevant casual factors is based on, and supported by research data of a number of projects in south and east Africa. This paper examines the identification of the relevant or mediating variables (needs, perceptions and knowledge of target groups) in a situation analysis as a step in planning programs or strategies of change, and is based on the relationship between behaviour (practice adoption) and behaviour consequences (conservation status). Mediating variables as determinants or precursors of behaviour should be considered as they provide direct access to behavioural change. Against this background, a way of incorporating these variables as psychic field forces in communication strategies is suggested as a means of addressing the negative forces (constraints) that are associated with the non-adoption of messages concerning wildlife protection. 13 Ecotourists’ experiences in protected areas in Southern Africa – why conflict? : Nellie de Crom Although many of South Africa’s national parks and nature reserves are by world standards, well-managed, there is extensive evidence of visitor pressure. This may lead to stressful situations which have the potential to negatively affect a nature experience, implying conflict between people and the specific site. Consequently people will eventually avoid such places. For this study in-depth interviews and questionnaires were used to gather information which was analised using open content analysis. Study participants consist of visitors to national parks and nature reserves in South Africa. Results show that the nature experience of visitors to these areas can be influenced by both internal and external factors. External influences are mainly caused by other human beings, directly or indirectly, and are seldom seen as positive. Factors that influence a nature experience in a positive way usually originate within a person him/herself (e.g. appreciation of a landscape, using senses in a nature setting and connecting with nature in a spiritual sense, amongst others), while external factors often degrade a nature experience (e.g. crowding, litter, noise and poor service.). Litter, including visual pollution, was singled out as the greatest source of disturbance in all natural areas. This is followed by the inconsiderate behaviour of co-visitors. Many study participants felt strongly about damage done to the natural environment as well as westernised influences on indigenous cultures. Mining activities, agricultural practices and trade in indigenous plants and animals, and other objects from nature, play a prominent role. Surveys have shown that visitors to natural areas prefer minimal development and are disappointed by visual intrusions, noise and crowding. Depending on the attitude of the individual, the nature of the destination visited, the purpose of the visit as well as other aspects, disturbances vary in importance and intensity. A better understanding of what causes a nature experience to be perceived as negative can help managers, tour guides, developers and individuals to reduce the frequency and intensity of these disturbances. In the process the visitor’s experience will be enhanced and an overall improved satisfaction rating will be achieved, implying that they will return to the specific or similar destinations. 14 Laura Kubasiewicz 'The pine marten - conserving a predator' The pine marten suffered heavy persecution in Scotland during the early 20th century, restricting its range to a few relict populations in the North West highlands. Several factors (e.g. legal protection and increase in woodland area) have, however, helped its return to parts of its former range. Recent work in a semi-natural plantation has shown that, although seen as forest specialists, a level of forest fragmentation within the pine marten home range is beneficial as it provides habitat for their main prey, the field vole. Accurate population estimates from forests with varying degrees of fragmentation are, however, lacking. To assess pine marten population trends, surveys have traditionally involved counting scat; this method suffers several drawbacks e.g. individual heterogeneity and seasonal variation in diet can have a strong effect on scat production. Recent developments in non-invasive genotyping may provide a valuable solution. In this study, a mark-recapture method of population density estimation is planned for four forests, including Abernethy NNR, using scat and hair individual genotypes. This method will shed some much needed light on the status of pine marten within Scotland, the effects of current forest management regimes on their density and dispersal and advise these regimes for future species protection. 15 Evangelia Apostolopoulou and John Pantis The growing establishment of protected areas incorporating profitable economic activity and conservation initiatives has made the emergence of conflicts around them integral to conservation practice worldwide. Over the last two decades the participation of “civil society” in protected areas governance under the mutual goal of sustainable development has become increasingly key to resolving natural resource conflicts. Schinias Greek Natura site, simultaneously national park and Olympic canoeing centre, provides a case study to investigate the roots and outcomes of natural resource conflicts within the context of coexistent of development and conservation agendas and collaborative governance. Schinias, the last wetland within the capital, is a characteristic case of a Greek protected area predicated on the idea of integrating development plans for the Olympic Games of 2004 in Athens with conservation of a Natura 2000 site. The Greek state presented Schinias as a “groundbreaking project” combining environmentally friendly development with benefits for local residents and the restoration of a degraded wetland, making Schinias the keystone project for achieving a “Green” Olympics. Schinias was also the second protected area selected for an institutional shift towards collaborative governance in implementing the Habitats Directive. Following a grounded theory approach and drawing on insights from the fields of political ecology and environmental governance as well as from research on socialecological systems has enabled us to reveal the political, socio-economic and conservation conflicts arising during implementation of state development and conservation policies. It appears that governmental political handling exacerbated these conflicts leading to political manipulation to justify policy failure and promote nature privatization. Simultaneously, state policies collude with powerful interests, progressively excluding and blaming less powerful locals and exploiting the environment, under the guise of promoting conservation, sustainability, and collaboration. We conclude that conflict resolution compatible with nature protection and social justice cannot occur in isolation from resolving crucial socio-economic problems, strengthening transparency and accurately analysing the dynamics of local communities 16