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Pranking Memory How is information stored in LTM? • Information is stored based on meaning. • Information to be remembered collects together because it is related, so meaning of one concept is derived from its relationship to other concepts Example Semantic Network Schema Theory • Schemas provide a skeleton structure, which is filled in with details from an experience • Schema knowledge also organized around scripts – Knowledge about what occurs during routine activities Reconstructive Memory • Memories are reconstructed, and as such, subject to the influence of expectations – Sir Frederic Bartlett (1932) – “The War of the Ghosts” Schemas and Memory Errors • Schematic processing is among the most pervasive sources of predictable errors in memory. • Why? • The graduate student office study Grad Student Office • Most everyone recalled that the office had a chair, desk and walls. • Some participants recalled schema consistent items, like books that were not present. What is false memory? • False memory refers to the circumstances in which we are possessed of positive, definitive memories of events – although the definitiveness may vary – that did not actually happen to us. Some Factors Reducing the Accuracy of Eyewitness Memory Wait…why eyewitnesses? • Eyewitnesses generally are taken off guard by the crime – They are often preoccupied with their own thoughts and plans • The criminal’s actions are often brief and swift • Criminals take steps to avoid recognition – e.g., they wear disguises • Eyewitnesses are subject to: – – – – – Inattentional blindness Change blindness Prior expectations Post-event information Weapon focus Inattentional Blindness • A failure to see fully visible objects or events because attention is focused elsewhere. Change Blindness • The phenomenon in which some prominent feature of the visual environment is dramatically changed without the perceiver apparently noticing • It seems our LTM for complex scenes is much less detailed than we often believe Prior Expectations • Hastorf and Cantril (1954) – Design: • Dartmouth and Princeton students watched an American football game between the two schools • They were asked to detect violations of rules – Results: • Princeton students detected twice as many violations by Dartmouth than did Dartmouth students • Remember Schemas? Post-event Factors • Information provided after an event, both visual or verbal, can dramatically affect eyewitness memory. Post-event Factors: The Misinformation Paradigm • The contents of our memories are subject to interference from any number of sources. – Based on the underlying idea that memory is reconstructive Post-event Factors: Leading Question Effect • Loftus and Palmer (1974) • Can cause witnesses to remember episodes differently – estimate the speeds of the cars when they • • • • • smashed bumped collided hit contacted Implanting False Memories • As previously discussed, memory for events can be altered to include false information. – E.g., Misinformation • Can an entirely false memory be implanted? The “Lost-in-the-Mall” Paradigm • Participants are presented with scenarios of past events. • Some of the events are true (corroborated by relatives and friend) • One or more of the events is false. • Memory for all events is tested at multiple time points. The “Lost-in-the-Mall” Paradigm • Interesting findings. – 25% of participants falsely recalled being lost in a shopping mall. (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995) – 37% of participants recalled false events such as being rescued by a lifeguard (Heaps & Nash, 2001) – 25.5% recalled spilling a bowl of punch on the parents of the bride at a wedding. (Hyman, Husband, & Billings, 1995) Sample Interview from (Hyman, Husband, & Billings, 1995) I: Next one looks like an eventful wedding reception. Looks like you were 5 years old. You’re at a wedding of a family friend, playing with some other kids, while you’re running around uh you bump into a table and spill punch on the parents of the bride. S: [laughs] I don’t remember that either. That’s pretty funny though [laughs] I: [laughs] Yeah, that seems like it would be kind of eventful. S: Yeah, God, maybe my mom never talks about these. She never talked about, she’s never told me about that, jeez, that’s funny. A wedding. I wonder whose wedding it could be… man, I want to talk to her and find out where she’s getting these, cause…a wedding reception. I can totally see myself like running around and bumping into the table. I would do that. Final Interview I: The next one I have is an eventful wedding at age 5. S: Yeah I thought about this one too. I definitely think it’s a friend of my mothers for some reason and the people I spill punch on, I picture them to be a heavy set man, not fat but like tall and big, and I picture him having a dark suit on, like greyish dark hair and balding on top, and uh I picture him with a square face and I picture him being kind of irritated or mad, then the woman, I see her in a light coloured dress that has like flowers on it, I think I see flowers on it and stuff, and I see like a big red punch thing down the front of them, can see that. Her hair hadn’t turned grey yet, it was still dark, it was brown. Implanting False Memories • What about implausible or impossible events? – Participants who viewed an advertisement for Disney World that included an image of Bug Bunny were significantly more likely to recall meeting Bugs during a trip to the theme park (Braun, Ellis, & Loftus, 2002). • Many of the participants who falsely remembered the event recalled specific details including shaking hands or hugging Bugs. – Participants presented with articles and testimony about demonic possession where more confident that they had witnessed such an event as a child (Mazzoni, Loftus, & Kirch, 2001). Implanting False Memories • Frenda, Knowles, Saletan, and Loftus (2012) – What did they do? – What did they find?