Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
1 M366: Natural and artificial intelligence 8 credits course, one semester Pre-requisite course: M263 Two TMAs (20%), one MTA(30%) and one final exam (50%) Like any other AOU course, to pass the course you have to get: A Minimum of 40% on the CA (TMA and MTA) A Minimum of 40% on the final exam A Minimum of 50% for the average of the CA and the final 2 Course Structure The course is divided into six blocks A total of 17 units Block 1: intelligent machines Unit 1 Machines, minds and computers Block 2: Symbolic intelligence Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Fundamentals of symbolic AI Search Symbolic AI in the world Has symbolic AI failed 3 Course Structure: the units Block 3: Natural intelligence Unit 1 Natural intelligence Unit 2 Mechanism of natural intelligence Unit 3 Interaction and emergence in swarms Unit 4 Interaction, emergence, adaptation and selection in individuals Block 4: Neural networks Unit 1 Mechanism Unit 2 Layers and learning Unit 3 Unsupervised learning in layers and lattices Unit 4 It’s about time: recurrence, dynamics and chaos 4 Course Structure: the units Block 5: Evolutionary computation Unit 1 Unleashing the gene genie, an introduction to evolutionary algorithms Unit 2 Genetic algorithms Unit 3 Artificial evolution Block 6: Reflections Unit 1 Intelligence, mind and consciousness 5 Block I, Unit 1 Machines, minds and computers This unit has two main aims: 1. 2. Reviewing the development of human thinking about machines and our mental ability Presenting historical and technical issues that lead to Cybernetics and Symbolic AI 6 Block I, Unit 1 Machines, minds and computers This unit focuses on: 1. 2. 3. 4. Machines Minds Artificial intelligence Computers Block I, Unit 1 Machines 7 The early beginning: Hephaestus (god of fire) in the old Greek, created Talos, a gigantic mechanical man of bronze, guardian of Crete. (Iliad, XVIII) Automata (around 1495), Leonardo da Vinci constructed an automaton in the form of armored man capable of moving its arms and simulating speech. Vaucanson’s duck (1800’s) Game-playing automata: the Turk (1770), Deep blue of IBM 1997) Robots Block I, Unit 1 Machines 8 Why build such artificial entities? What sort of thing did people think these entities actually were? What has been the public attitude to the idea of artificial creatures? Inspired by myths and early creatures, mechanical pictures start to appear by thinkers of the 17th and the 18th centuries Block I, Unit 1 Machines 9 An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes. Source: Laplace, Celestial Mechanics (1799–1825) Block I, Unit 1 Minds 10 What is mind ? Mind and body: Debate between monist and dualist Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): The world consists only of particles of matter in motion. Bodies and minds are also just particles of matter in motion. Their motions are caused, in part, by the effects of the movements of particles outside the body, which press on the senses, causing particles in our minds to move in sympathy. The particles in our minds form parcels: that is, symbols representing concepts such as number, time, names, and so on. Thought amounts to a form of computation, in which these mental symbols are added, subtracted, etc., in processes similar to those of arithmetic. Block I, Unit 1 Cybernetics 11 Cybernetics: definitions "a science concerned with the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing, and processing information so as to use it for control"-A.N. Kolmogorov "Cybernetique= the art of growing"--A.M. Ampere "the science of control and communication in the animal and the machine"-Norbert Wiener "the art of securing efficient operation"-L. Couffignal "the art of steersmanship"; "deals with all forms of behavior in so far as they are regular, or determinate, or reproducible"; "stands to the real machine-electronic, mechanical, neural, or economic-much as geometry stands to a real object in our terrestrial space"; "offers a method for the scientific treatment of the system in which complexity is outstanding and too important to be ignored"-W. Ross Ashby Block I, Unit 1 Cybernetics 12 Cybernetics: definitions “a branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information"-Gregory Bateson "the science of effective organization"-Stafford Beer "the art and science of manipulating defensible metaphors"-Gordon Pask "Should one name one central concept, a first principle, of cybernetics, it would be circularity."-Heinz von Foerster "a way of thinking"-Ernst von Glasersfeld "the science and art of understanding"-Humberto Maturana "Cybernetics: when I reflect on the dynamics of observed systems and on the dynamics of the observer-whence 'creative cybernetics': when I project the dynamics of a system I would like to observe"-from announcement of 1987 ASC conference in Urbana-Champaign, Illinois "the ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness"-Herbert Brun source: GWU Block I, Unit 1 Cybernetics 13 cybernetics attempts to find the common elements in the functioning of automatic machines and of the human nervous system, and to develop a theory that will cover the entire field of control and communication in machines and in living organisms. Block I, Unit 1 Symbolic AI 14 The goal is to construct machines that have the following features: Use of language Forming and using concepts Complex problem-solving, such as playing chess Learning Creativity Block I, Unit 1 Symbolic AI 15 Intelligent machines: Search: capable to locate the answer to a problem by sifting all possible answers and select the correct (or the best) one Symbols and rules: can manipulate words (symbols) according to logical and linguistic rules Mathematical structure: the implemented model must be a logical or mathematical structure of some kind. Randomness: injection some degree of randomness into the orderly processes Neuron Networks: simulating the structure found in the human brain Block I, Unit 1 Symbolic AI 16 Intelligent machines, two important keys: Representation: intelligent computer systems contain a model in some logical or mathematical form, of the problem being solved. These models are thus essentially symbolic, consisting of logical expressions Search: computer systems can find “intelligent” answers to complex problems by searching among all possible answers for the best one. The process of search will be governed by rules. Block I, Unit 1 Intelligence 17 What is Intelligence ? The ability to comprehend, to understand and to profit from experience A general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language and learn The ability of an individual to understand and cope with the environment The capacity to create constructively for the purpose of evolutionary gain Block I, Unit 1 Intelligence 18 Observations Observation 1 : There is an obvious lack of agreement on what intelligence is, and thus of the exact goals of artificial intelligence. Observation 2 : The only really clear and effective definitions of intelligence are in terms of a few examples of intelligent behavior: perception, reasoning and action, in the case of Winston above; decision making, problem solving and learning in Bellman’s definition. Observation 3 : The overwhelming focus is on human intelligence. Block I, Turing work 19 Alain Turing (1912, 1954) the father of AI Code breaker during the second world war Turing machine (invented on paper, 1936), it consists of: a read/write head (or 'scanner') with a paper tape passing through it The tape is divided into squares, each square bearing a single symbol This tape is the machine's general purpose storage medium, serving both as the vehicle for input and output and as a working memory for storing the results of intermediate steps of the computation. Block I, Turing work 20 The machine can: read (i.e. identify) the symbol currently under the head write a symbol on the square currently under the head (after first deleting the symbol already written there, if any) move the tape left one square move the tape right one square change state halt. Turing test 21 Block I, Unit 1 Cybernetics Vs. Symbolic AI Weak AI: computer value is that it gives us a very powerful tool. Strong AI: computer is not only a tool, rather, the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind Block I, Unit 1 Computers 22 The digital computers Formal systems: Taken States/starting state Rules Automatic formal system: one that works by itself Deterministic Non deterministic Heuristics: experience based techniques for problem solving Block I, Unit 1 Computers 23 What computers can do? Models, for a natural system we have: Simulation: is a model that captures the functional connections between inputs and outputs of the system Replication: is a model that captures the functional connections between inputs and outputs of the system and is based on processes that are same as, or similar to, those of the real-world-system Emulation: is a model that captures the functional connections between inputs and outputs of the system and is based on processes that are same as, or similar to, those of the real-world-system and in the same materials as the natural system. Block I, Unit 1 Computers 24 Optimization problems: Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP): For 5 cities, 120 possible combinations For 10 cities, 3.628.800 combinations For 15 cities, 1.307.674.368.000 combinations For 20 cities, 2.43 1018 Combinatorial explosion TSP is an NP hard problem. (there is no known algorithm for solving it in any realistic period of time, although such algorithm may exist)