Download The Functional Analysis of English

The Functional
Analysis of English
A Hallidayan Approach by Thomas
and Meriel Bloors
Synopsis by Dr. Quadri S. S. R.
Introduction
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This book, the block second deals with the
functional analysis of English language.
Based on the surfacial simplified Halliday’s
functional grammar and other like minded
linguists’ influential works, how language works as
social communication is analyzed using the
grammatical tools.
Language is a set of meanings and the
grammatical study of how meanings are built up
using the vocabulary, tone and emphasis.
…Introduction continued
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Some linguists took language grammar as
separated from meanings.
The other group agreed it in two steps:
Looking at language from the form perspective
(words & sentences).
 Forms of language representing meanings.
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Introduction…
Therefore Hallidayan approach got two(2)
aspects:
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1. Grammar related Semantic
2. Functional uses of language which indicates
linguistic choice.
Introduction….
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So language is a set of systems offering the
speaker choices of meaning expression.
Ex: 1) What’s the last date for TMA submission?
(Interrogative)
 2) Tell me the last date for TMA submission.
(Imperative)
 3) I’d like to know the last date for TMA
submission. (Declarative)
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Besides sentences, choice of words is also
available at every speech producing situation.
Introduction….
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Example: Railway line, railway road, railway
track
Mother, Mom, Mamma
Choice of word order specially “Voices”
Ali writes letters.
Letters are written by Ali.
‘Writes’ for simple past and ‘are written’ for
action happening regularly.
Singular subject Ali is replaced by plural
subjects.
Introduction…
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The voices analysis of one sentence is enough to
lead us to the point of language in use.
Now we learnt that expression of meaning
depends on:-
Specific situations
 Forms of language
 Influence of the situational complex elements
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For instance the simple greeting “good morning”
Can be used as usual practice or to mean some
thing else, as reprimanding term.
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Thus the very usual practice of wishing depends
on: 1.
Time situation
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Status of speaker and listener
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Sense of humour of the speaker or
listener
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The expression of meanings in oral and written
forms like greetings, application for job, and
Business letter (Collection) are situationally
constrained.
The new comers of learners have to consciously
learn before exposed to the practical life in mature
society.
Situations command both choice of words and
grammar.
Man learns these situational demands from its
basics to integrated levels.
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This learning starts from family atmosphere
unconsciously and continues consciously in
the schools and college through proper
training.
Pupils training for writing narratives and
scientific experiments and debates and
project reports for larger audiences are the
example of the above said training.
Language spoken or written for any
situation is a ‘Text’.
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Professionally constrained language spoken or
written where utterances using words take special
significance is also a “Text”; Ex. utterances
between senior doctor and an intern.
As situation of utterances is important, grammar is
accountable for social situation even.
Study of Authentic texts, interesting and with
useful descriptions becomes essential now.
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In Halliday’s opinion, chunks of language spoken
or written in real circumstances for
communication, valid for analysis are “Text”.
Linguists who study only written texts take
language to be static.
Halliday disproved this by showing even written
language is unstatic where the narrator makes the
time situation move forward and sets the back
ground for the knowledge of the reader to interact
through out the story movements, from place to
place and time to time.
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Both the forms, in terms of listener &speaker and
time wise are unstatic.( examples are detective
stories)
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Linguists are interested in explaining how
language works—Discourse.
Text or Data are study objects.
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By analyzing data the coherent meaning produced
and processed by listeners and speakers are
understood.
On analyzing long sentences of conversations we
learn choice of words in one sentence depends on
the following one: pronouns depend on nouns.
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Example: Where do Arabs live?
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They live through out the Middle East.
Some in Australia, others in Europe, and a
third group in USA. They don’t go near The
Antarctica, except to do scientific research.
Linguistic analysis high light how
certainte3xts are more effective in giving
information, persuading shopping,
identification of criminals, designing
syllabus etc.
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Lets analyze Notion Wise:
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The chart given, gives ranks
But the analysis shows the sentence contains two
clauses. First with 11 words and second with 5
words word ‘answers’ has two morphemes.
Being very clear that clause is a basic unit in
functional grammar which has a special place in
expressing meaning and interacting and its
constituents which express how things happen,
exist and felt are important for study through Tree
diagram also called Constituent diagram
A sentence may contain one or more clauses
Sentence
Clause
Clause
Clause
Clause
Sentence constituency
 A clause may have one or more groups
Clause
Group
Group
Group
Group
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Word Word
Word Word
Word Word
Word Word
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Clause Constituency:
Functional grammar deals with language isn use.
Notion of function in grammar is complex.
Clause, Words and Groups etc are seen as parts of
the systems of language.
Each part has function in terms of Linguistic
system.
One type of analysis assigns grammatical
functions to linguistic element.
 Eg. Some in Australia…. “Some” is a subject.
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Communication functions of utterances do more
than one function depending of the situation.
“Good morning” a greeting work may also serve
as a reprimanding term.
And many words may serve the same purpose of
communication.
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Ex: Take off your shoes Robin. (Direct &imperative).
Would you take your shoes off please, Robin? (Less
direct).
You haven’t taken your shoes off Robin. (Extremely
indirect way).
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This suggests that relation between form of
utterances and meaning expressed is very
complex.
Utterances of adults using fewer elements or
components convey extra ordinary functions
called Metafunctions.
Meta functions are of three types.
I. Language used in organizing, understanding and
expressing perceptions of the world and of our
own
consciousness is called Ideational Function. It is of
two types.
1. Experiential Function made of content or
ideas
2. Logical Function relation ship between
ideas.
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II: Interpersonal function: Language that enables
to communicate with other people taking roles,
understand, express feeling, attitudes and
judgments has Interpersonal functions.
III: Textual Function: Use of language which
involves organizing the text to relate what is said or
written to the real world and to other linguistic
events.
Halliday’s opinion: Language grammar developed
in long span of time. These functions shape
language and fixed the course of its evolution.
Labels
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In all walks of life there are different
technical terms in use:
Music: Chord, semitone, octave etc
 Mathematics: angle decimal fraction etc.
 Medical profession: Gastritis hypothermia
cholera bird flu etc.
 Motor vehicle: Gear, ignition coil, carburetor
etc.
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If mechanics are not allowed to use the technical
terms then their profession would become
extremely difficult.
Brake: A thing that puts pressure on the wheels to
stop them turning. Here many words are technical
terms.
Authors say that not allowing using the terms of
grammar or linguistic ones is a conspiracy against
the Linguists. It is a political allegory.
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Labeling the concrete parts of internal
combustion engine is acceptable and
labeling the abstract language items is not
acceptable to non-linguists group.
“Language for talking about language is
Metalanguage.”
(Page 14, Para three, the functional analysis of
English)
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There fore labeling becomes a must
Word class:
Greek grammarians prepared parts of speech
Noun, pronoun verb, adverb, adjective
preposition, conjunction, article and /or
interjection.
Linguists don’t use now as parts of speech they
call it ‘word class’ to mean lexical items.
Hallidayan Grammar replaces numeral and
determiner, removing interjection and pronoun.
Nouns
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Nouns can be classified as sub classes as
common, proper, abstract and collective nouns.
Naming words.
Considering the potential for interaction,
morphology nouns are described as linguistic
items as:
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Head of nominal group realizing function of subject
or compliment in a clause
possessive inflection taker—John’s Donkey
a common noun preceded by a countable noun a, an,
or numeral forming plural inflection
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The defining characteristic of noun cannot
be applied to other categories except
interaction and contrast.
Pronouns: Pronouns can act as nouns as
they define the nouns used previously so
they are included as nouns
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Example for page 17 chapter 2 TFAE:
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“Let me add only that the Great Khan has
no authority over them and they render no
tribute or other acknowledgement.”
Me, them, they etc serve similar
grammatical functions of noun they replace
them.
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In 17thand 18thC’s words were added to English
language for the advancements in Scientific and
technological fields very much.
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Science: botany, zoology, hydrogen, Oxygen
Recent developments: ecology, cybernetics,
microchip and soft ware
Japan: Judo karate
Norway: ski
Food items: Pizza, Biryani Chatni etc.
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Pronouns cannot be easily added as they are
closed set items.
Types of pronouns are divided as:
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Personal pronouns:
Singular
 First person: I, me mine
 Second person: You yours
 Third person: he him his she her hers it its
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Modifiers: My, your, his, her and its.
Plurals
Modifiers
First person: we us ours
Our
Second person: you yours
Your
Third person: They them theirs Their
 Verbs: Besides defining action or state they vary in
form and they are classified in three subclasses by
Halliday: Lexical, auxiliary and finite. Other
approaches are also possible
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Term verb confuses if referred to two
different categories:
Write, writes, wrote, writing and written- Lexical
verbs
 Is, was were, has, have – finite and their
combination:
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Is writing, was writing, were writing, has written,
were written
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Verb write and its other inflections with the
combination of: have has had will may can be
described as forms of verb under one heading in
the dictionary Write, called citation.
We can refer write as a lexical verb. (written in
dictionary separately)
Finites: is are was were has etc, and auxiliary
verbs: do does, did , are closed sets
Modal auxiliaries do not add ‘s’ for third person
singular: can could shall should will would may
might must
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But grammarians describe finite auxiliary and non
finite auxiliary verbs
Besides the special sub set of modal auxiliary
verbs or modals.
Certain verbs have five forms: dig, digs, digging,
dug.
Others have six forms: write, to write, writes,
wrote
writing, written
Another group has only four forms: cut, to cut,
cuts cutting.
Finite and auxiliary form a close set.
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There are variations of verbs pertaining to
person, number, tense, finite, non finite,
auxiliary, modal, regular , irregular, forming
simple past with –ed and --en with past
participle from along with active and
passive voice.
Adjectives functions:
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Modifiers of noun: strong weak fine black etc.
Head of a group serving a compliment to
copular verb: be seem become etc.
 Morphological potential of adjectives is
inflection in comparative and superlative
degrees of comparison, -er and –est, with
exceptions: non gradable adjectives like
female. Left, right single, married; and certain
adjectives are modified by very, fairly, rather,
quite, somewhat, etc.
Determiners
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Determiners are more comprehensive than
articles.
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A and An show up the same position.
This, that, these, those are closed set like pronouns
in the
Examples 1 and 2 from the course text page 21
TFAE:
 This micro processor directs the car’s enginecontrol system.
 : These two groups of figures are binary and
decimal equivalents.
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‘Some’ and ‘any’ can be used as
determiners in the modifying functional
aspect, Eg.:
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He melted down some ornaments.
Did he melt down any ornaments?
Determiners and articles even were classified
as adjectives in traditional grammar, though
the job done is different in nature; hence when
occur together determiners precede the
adjectives.
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The greater fear is that of terrorism.
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Determiners some times precede noun but not the
adjectives.
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A driver responds the traffic signals by the front drivers.
This driver responds the traffic signals by the front
drivers.
But this purpose cannot be solved by putting
adjectives
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New driver responds the traffic signals by front drivers.
Numerals
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Numerals are Frequently classified as
adjectives.
They are like determiners.
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Ex. Three times seven equals twenty one
seven and twenty one serve the purpose of
noun. So they must be treated separate class
for their anomalous nature.
Adverbs
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Adverbs share a variety and any one definition is
in sufficient for their class. It serves as:
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adjunct in a clause if a head of the word group
morphological feature formed by –ly
without suffix – fast as adjective and adverb
Frequency: seldom, invariably, never, often, frequently
manner: quickly
Time: now then
Place: here there
Direction: upwards, down wards left, right, forward,
sideways
Sentence adverbs: often occur in the beginning of the
clause: however, frankly, moreover, nevertheless, thus,
consequently, finally, honestly, clearly, apparently
Prepositions
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Prepositions like Up, On, In, over, under, by, inside,
outside frequently occurring as adverbs create
confusion.
Page 23, 2.3.8: Eg., they can process sounds coming
in through a microphone and reproduce them
through speakers or onto special disks. They can
monitor temperatures in laboratories or manipulate
images on television.
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Sounds coming in, onto, on ---- Adverbs
In laboratories, through a microphone ---- Prepositions.
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Adverbs are homonymous pairs.
Looking & sounding alike but different in
meaning.
Preposition does not vary in its form, though
occurs in prepositional phrases with a nominal
group as compliment.
Conjunctions
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Classified into:
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Linkers or Coordinating:
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Small set like and, but, or, so and then. Possibly for
Binding or subordinating:
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Because, since, until, before, after, unless, whether,
although, whenever, if are followed by a clause
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Like other speech components conjunctions
may also slip in other word category:
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And, or are the most confusing.
Subjects
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Subject is a traditional term which can be also a
noun.
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It can be an object as well.
Eg., Money is the root of all evil. (subject)
 They offered money. (object)
 He is obsessed with money. (a compliment
according to systematic functional grammar)
Some pronouns act as subject, object and nouns.
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Non living or neutral gender can also be
subjects.
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Eg., The computer chip uses this battery of
information, doesn’t it?
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The tag question is a diagnostic test for the subject.
The doctor prescribed these pills, didn’t she?
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The subject doesn’t define the gender.
Groups
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A subject can be just a noun, pronoun or a nominal
group.
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Eg., A computer with an external drive works in the same
way.
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The underlined part is the subject.
The key grammatical item in the group is called the
“head”. The remaining elements are “modifiers”.
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Price movements must be based on the beliefs of the
investing public.
Price movements is a subject, nominal group, head of the
nominal group, neutral gender, common noun, verbal group
and also a noun along with a modifier.
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Verbal group  verb at its head
Adverbial group  adverb.
Conjunction group  conjunction
Preposition group  preposition.
Groups of the same type are linked together to
make a group complex.
Eg., Jack and Jill – nominal group complex
 She speaks and think like a lawyer – verbal GC.
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Having surveyed the groups and parts of speech now we
move to the advanced grammar component, Clauses.
Three ways of looking at Clauses:
1. Structural relation with the mood.
E.g. Saad had already written an important paper on this
topic.
Saad is the subject and the clause a declarative
statement.
The head of the subject is a theme, the subject if works
is an actor, irrespective of animate or inanimate it can
be subject.
Subject and related functions
The simplest form a personal pronoun, like ‘he’ can
realize the function of the nominal head of a subject.
 The subject of clause , a NominalGroup,Arabian
Scientist, complicated by placing alongside the personal
name, Hiatham, is said to be in Apposition to the
nominal group.
E.g.In the 9th century, an Arabian Scientist, Haitham
awoke in the night with an ideawhich he scribbled down
ona small piece of paper……
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Question-tag test:
 Haitham awoke in the mid night, didn’t he?
 Didn’t he reflects the third person singular pronoun in
active voice to stand the taq question test perfectly.
 Passive Clause: In passive clauses some time the subject
is made up of nominal group and ‘by’ so the by-phrase
realizes the subject in a passive clause as the tg question
does in the active clause.
E.g. The idea obsessed Haitham.
Haitham was obsessed by the idea.
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Empty subjects
Empty subjects are also called dummy subjects.
E.g.[…]it was a mystery why some nerves stimulate an organ and others depress
it.
The first it in the example just stand to fill the gap of subject in relation to the
prior clause.
 Finites are and Predicators: Finites and predicators exist in verbal groups in
two modes. Open and fused
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am is are was were finites contain agreement of person and number. They
form open verbal group.
E.g. It was a way of determining.
S F
He awoke again about six.
S F/P
He has written the letter.
S F
P
 Negatives and Interrogatives
 He has not written the letter.
 He he not written the letter.
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Mood
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Clasue has two things The mood, the Residue
Subject and finite form Mood
Predicator+Compliment+Adjuncts=residue
Mood less clauses:
E.g.Socrates was gulity of not
worshippin Gods.
The nerves[we have just discussed]
are efferent nerves.
The sorts of improvements [ you
might want to make an existing
system ] include adding sockets
installing fixed equipment and reorganizing lighting.
In all, there are four moods:
Moodless clauses
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Mood less clauses:
E.g.Socrates was gulity of not worshippin Gods.
The nerves[we have just discussed] are efferent nerves.
The sorts of improvements [ you might want to make an existing
system]include adding sockets installing fixed equipment and reorganizing lighting.
The above given are clauses are contact clauses. While writing
such clauses we need to add which or that grammatically but while
speaking they are omitted.
Insuch cases we have the option to understand the clasue to be
of declarative or iinterrogative Mood.
In all, there are four moods: Declarative interrogative, imperative
and exclamative mood.
Adjuncts
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Adjuncts: sets the connection for the following clause or
sentences. These are grammatically of less importance compared
to Subject, Finite Predicative and compliments.
Types of Adjuncts: Circumstantial, modal and conjunctive
adjuncts
One that refers to place or time is CA
One that indicates some aspect or attitude towards the speakers
or writer’s message or commentis Modal Adjunct.
The one that creates a link between previous and following
clasues is called conjunctive adjunct.
Adjuncts are understood by theier nature as they are formed by
prepositional, adverbial and nominal groups.and not by
conjunctions.
Information &Thematic Structures
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Information structure involves constituents under the given
labels.
Thematic structure is related to the labels called theme and
rheme.
Theme is the head of the group in the beginning of the
sentence. If it tells about the topic of the information the
speaker or writer is giving it is called topical theme.
It can be a noun pronoun or interrogative finite or predicate.
Riyadh is the capital of Saudi Arabia.
Capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh.
It’s the capital of Saudi Arabia.
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Refer the page no 76, 77, 78 and 79 for the
examples of the Block two, The functional
Analysis Of English.