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Energy in Harsh
Environments
THE FUTURE OF ENERGY
Robert Socolow and Stephen Pacala
Climate Stabilization Wedges
Robert Socolow and Stephen Pacala have proposed a solution to help battle
climate change. They believe that current technologies are sufficient to
reduce carbon emissions enough to stabilize global warming. They have
described fifteen different strategies to help battle climate change. The
fifteen wedges can be broken up into four categories: energy efficiency and
conservation, nuclear power, fossil fuel-based strategies, and renewables
and biostorage. They believe that each carbon cutting wedge would
reduce emissions by a billion metric tons every year, by 2057. They suggest
that implementing twelve of their wedges would lower emissions by fifty
percent.
4 Categories of Wedges
Martin Hoffert
Misleading Wedges
Dr. Martin Hoffert of New York University claims that Socolow and Pacala’s
climate stabilization wedges are misleading. He argues that while the
technologies are available in a technical sense, they are not available in an
operational sense. Simply knowing how to do a thing is not enough. He
argues that while humanity knew how to build nuclear weapons in the late
1930s and go to the Moon in the 1960s, it took the Manhattan and Apollo
programs to realize those accomplishments. He believes that an Apollo-like
program in alternate energy would be a more effective solution to climate
change than a broad spectrum of mitigation technologies.
Who is Correct?

Hoffert’s Apollo-like program focused on alternative energy may be just as
unlikely to happen as Socolow and Pacala’s wedges.

If neither the climate stabilization wedges or an Apollo-like program are
currently being implemented, and are unlikely to be fully implemented,
what else can be done?
Energy in Harsh Environments

There are programs which have the potential to help realize both theories.
Some scientific programs are currently working on creating highly energy
efficient renewable energy forms to help with discoveries in outer space and
in the deep sea, where refueling is not a possibility (fuel cells and deep sea
geothermal). There are other programs that are focused on improving energy
efficiency through improving energy storage capacity and improvement of
designs to decrease the need for high energy use (flywheels, solar energy
storage on the moon and earthships).

These programs are not the energy program that Hoffert envisions, but they
may help create similar results. They may also make Socolow and Pacala’s
efficiency and renewable wedges become more feasible to implement, and
eventually decrease the need for nuclear and fossil fuel energy altogether.
The Space Race
NASA Budget Cuts
The NASA Glenn Research Center
Renewable Energy

One of the four categories of climate stabilization wedges focuses on
utilizing renewable energy. Some forms of renewable electricity include
wind power, solar power, and biofuels. Unfortunately, as of 2012, the
amount of renewable energy used in the United States only represented
9% of total energy use. One of the reasons why renewable energy use is
so low is that it currently is not as efficient as fossil fuels, which as of 2012
represented 83% of energy use in the United States. If these technologies
can become more efficient, then they have the potential to grab a
greater share of the energy market in the United States. Some projects are
showing promise for great advances such as fuel cell and deep sea
geothermal efficiency.
Fuel Cells

Hydrogen vehicles use fuel cells instead of engines. A fuel cell works much
like a battery, but they do not need to be recharged. Fuel cells combine
hydrogen with oxygen, or another oxidizing agent, to produce electricity.
Batteries have two electrodes that are separated by an electrolyte, and a
solid metal electrode which is consumed as electricity is produced. In fuel
cells the electrode is not consumed, which allows it to produce electricity
as long as hydrogen and an oxidizing agent are continuously pumped
through it.
Fuel Cell Car
Future of Fuel Cells

The NASA Glenn Research Center heads NASA’s fuel cell research and
development.

Three types of fuel cells show promise for the future: (1) proton-exchangemembrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), (2) regenerative fuel cell (RFC) systems,
and (3) solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).
Proton-Exchange-Membrane fuel cells

NASA developed PEMFCs for the Gemini mission, but the early versions
had design issues so they were not used. PEMFCs are more powerful,
lighter, safer, simpler to operate, and more reliable than alkaline fuel cells.
They last longer, perform better, and may cost less than alkaline fuel cells.
PEMFCs use hydrogen fuel and their only byproduct is water, which is pure
enough to be used as drinking water.
Regenerative Fuel Cell Systems

RFC fuel cells use hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, water,
and heat. Solar powered electrolyzers can then be used to break the
water down into hydrogen and oxygen, which the fuel cell can use again.
The waste heat can also be used to increase efficiency. RFC systems
could be used to provide a renewable energy conversion system. RFC
concepts for storing energy have been developed for use on the
International Space Station and high-altitude aircraft. RFCs may be used
for storing energy on the Moon or Mars in the future.
Solid-Oxide Fuel Cells

SOFCs are being considered for use in space because of their high
efficiency, high power density, and low pollution. They can operate at
high temperatures and produce power from easy-to-transport fuels
instead of just pure hydrogen. SOFCs also are being developed for
portable electronic devices, cars, and aircraft.
Energy Efficiency

Energy storage and energy efficiency have been a challenge for
renewable energies.

Business Insider: There's basically one thing holding solar back: storage.
Flywheels
Happy Thanksgiving!

If you would like to learn more about this topic and other exciting things
happening in energy, please read my paper.