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Journal of Human and Social Science Research; Vol. 06 (02), 2015, 067-073
ISSN 2331-4974
How Mongolia Was Influenced By the First Sino-Japanese War,
Russo-Japanese War And
Geopolitical Changes in North Asia
(In Late XIX-Early XX Century)
URANGUA KH. JAMSRAN
Doctor, professor. Department of History. School of Science. National University of Mongolia.
Ih surguuliin gudamj-1, Bld II-369B.
Ulaanbaatar 15160. Mongolia
E-mail: [email protected]
Received February 2015, Accepted February 2015
ABSTRACT
There is little to no research on the impact of the North East Asian geopolitical changes on Mongolia in
the early 19th-20th century. Based on the earlier research on the independence of Mongolia, it was believed
that it was triggered by the colonization policy of the Qing state starting from 1901. However, based on
the recent research it is more likely that the anti-Qing sentiments in Mongolia started even earlier – during
and after the Japan-Qing war.
This article attempts to find the real reasons behind the rise of such sentiments and change of power
distribution in the North East region of Asia. The article discusses two major wars that occurred in the
early 20th century, each separately, showing their consequences and impact on Mongolia.
Keywords: Geopolitics, independence, separation, Mongolia, Japan-Qing war, Russo-Japan war
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 68
2 EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA ............................................................................ 68
3 GEOPOLITICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH EAST ASIA ............................................... 69
4 JAPAN-QING WAR AND MONGOLIA .......................................................................................... 69
5 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR /1904-1905/ AND MONGOLIA ............................................................ 70
6 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................. 72
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INTRODUCTION
At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th centuries two wars took place in the
North East Asia – first (1894-1895), between Japan and Manchu Qing dynasty and, second (1904-1905),
between Japan and Russia. These two wars have changed the geopolitical situation in the region and
activated the Mongolian national independence movement. Prior to the first war, the Qing dynasty
maintained a wide range of restrictive policies on Mongolia to preserve the native way of life, including
restrictions on communication with the outside world, closure of Mongolia to China. However, the first
war, as confirmed by the archive documents, laid new grounds for policy change towards Mongolia. After
the first war the Qing has changed its policy towards Mongolia by depleting Mongolia to compensate for
their losses in the Japan war. The way to achieve it was through increase of taxation or, in particular, a
confiscation of large amounts of horses and money. This resulted in the Mongolian resistance and
increase of anti-Qing sentiments.
Russia lost the Russo-Japan war of 1904-1905 and it led to a change in Russia’s policy towards
Mongolia. It later influenced Mongolia to seek support from Tsarist Russia in the national liberation
movement that started in 1911.
This article covers further in detail the positive impact of the geopolitical change in the North
East Asia at the end of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th on Mongolia’s national liberation
movement.
2
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA
Mongolia lost its independence during 17-20th centuries and became the part of Qing Empire. Inner
Mongolia became a subject of the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1636, Outer Mongolia in 1691, and Jungar
(Western) Mongolia in 1756; thus, the Manchu Qing dynasty spent nearly 150 years to fully conquer
Mongolia. In the early era of Qing dynasty’s existence, there was no colonial policy towards Mongolia
(Urangua J, 2006). Mongolia was the part of the Qing’s soft policy of territorial expansion. The Qings had
no intentions to directly colonize Mongolia, but instead wanted to keep Mongolia semi-independent with
its traditional way of life. However, the Qings wanted to maintain Mongolia under its control and impose
certain duties (Jamsran L., 1997).
By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century the Qing Empire has vastly
expanded and reached the peak of its flourishing. But the situation has changed in the 19th century and the
empire began falling. It started with the loss of the Qing-Japan war of 1894-1895 (Nepomnin, 2005). The
Qing Empire signed the Treaty of Simonoseki on April 17th, 1895 with Japan, under which the Qing
dynasty gave up the eastern territories to the Japanese sphere of influence and agreed to pay enormous
war compensation to Japan.
Russia, since the rule of Tsar Peter the Great (1672-1725), started developing capitalism while the
serfdom system was still in existence. As a result, the territories of Siberia and Far East were heavily
colonized. In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian Empire adopted a strong policy towards the
Far East and started the construction of the Far East railroad system (Gregory, 2003). However, their Far
East policy collapsed when Russia was defeated by Japan in the war over the sphere of influence during
1904-1905. Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth on 23 August 1905 under which the Russian
influence in the Far East was significantly reduced. This resulted in the shift of interest from the Far East
to the Central Asia, including Mongolia. In 1907 under the Japan-Russia convention Outer Mongolia was
categorized as the territory of influence of Russia (Batbayar, 1998).
Initially the Manchu Qing maintained the policy of isolating Mongolia from the rest of the world and
keeping the nomadic way of life. However, with the weakening of the empire and falling into a semicolonial status for other superpowers, the Qing policy hardened its policy towards Mongolia starting from
1901. The tougher policy towards Mongolians faced strong resistance from the Mongols, increased the
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anti-Qing sentiments, led to the Mongolian national independence movement, and, finally, the separation
from the Qing dynasty and restoration of its independence. In this fight for independence the Mongols
sought support from Russia, and the Russians, though prioritizing its own interest, provided some support
to Mongolia.
3
GEOPOLITICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH EAST ASIA
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries the interest in the Far East of the super powers of the era was
dramatically increased and so was the struggle over the expansion of their spheres of influence.
Additionally, the local states, including Japan, Manchu Qing and Russia, were heavily interested in
maintaining its power in the region (Sandag, 1971).
The victories that Japan held in the Japan-Qing war of 1894-1895 and Russo-Japanese war of 19041905 granted the Japanese the privilege to dictate in the Japan and Yellow seas area and the entire the
North East Asia. Japan conquered Korea, Taiwan and Southern Sakhalin Islands (Akira, 1968). The rise
of Japan significantly changed the geopolitical environment of the region and indirectly influenced
Mongolia which was still a subject of the Qing dynasty.
The Qing defeat by Japan was the first major defeat for the Qing. Prior to the Japan-Qing war the Qing
dynasty had the ultimate superiority in its previous wars. Plenty was researched about the reasons and
results of the war. Japanese researchers covered the economic (Akira, 1968) and political (Michio, 1973)
implications of the war for Japan, Chinese scholars described it as the beginning of the Qing dynasty’s
collapse (Cui Pi, 1992 & Shiquan, 1997). Koreans concluded it as the loss of their independence and the
fight of the Qing over the influence over Korea (Kim, 2005; Shin, 1992 & Kim, 1987). More globally it is
said to be the beginning of geopolitical changes in the region (Zabrovskaya, 1993; Antonov, 2009;
Mandelbaum, 1995; Kaplan, 1968 & Slyunin, 1908). However, there is no mentioning of Mongolia in
these scholarly works.
4
JAPAN-QING WAR AND MONGOLIA
The Qing dynasty’s defeat in Japan-Qing war of 1894-1895 resulted in the loss of sphere of influence
and the imposition of large war compensation to Japan. These factors and the activation of the internal
struggle further weakened the empire. Using this weak condition of the Qing the great powers and Japan
increased their aggression towards China (Myers, 1987). In the summer of 1900 eight European states
attacked the Qing state collectively. The Qing state was not able to stand the attacks. China started
suffering from poverty, starvation and internal struggle, which gave rise to the country-wide rebellion
against the Manchu domination.
After the war the Japanese economy experienced a boom, but was still not able to fully enjoy the
benefits of the first major victory. Under the pressure of Tsarist Russia Japan didn’t fully occupy Korea
(Sladkovsky, 1971).
Mongolia as a subject of Qing dynasty was indirectly dragged into the Japan-Qing war. The war
started in July of 1894 and in August Outer Mongolia Affairs Ministry in Beijing sent a special circular
which notified Mongols to beware of Japanese spies disguised as Chinese, i.e. wearing Chinese outfit and
haircut. In such a case, it was ordered to immediately arrest such spies (NAM, M-179).
Also a special regulation was adopted by the Qing state to award anyone who has voluntarily donated
funds to the state for the war against Japan (NAM, M-179). As a result, a donation campaign was initiated
in Mongolia, including collection of domestic animals, leather and fur, silver and tea (tea was one of the
trading units at the time in Mongolia) for the army needs. Donations were provided by some banners
(“banner” Mongolian territorial and administrative unit), firms and individuals (NAM, M-179). At the end
of the war the Qing state was required to pay war compensation in an amount of 750 million lang (the
Mongolian version of “liang”, a monetary unit based on silver). Again, Mongolia was subjected to
collection of domestic animals, leather, fur, and money. Within the scope of such collection, an order was
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issued in 1896 to hold annual animal census in Mongolia, and to tax in accordance to such census (NAM,
M-179). Before the war there were human census for the registration of imperial army and border guards
(for the protection of northern border, the Qing state created a border guard duties for families that were
located near Russia-Mongolia border), as well as occasional collection of domestic animals based on the
necessity. However, as a result of the war, domestic animals – the main economic force of Mongolia –
became annually recorded and strictly monitored by the Qing authority. Also, the participation of the
Qing state in the financial affairs of the local authorities increased, resulting in an annual reporting of
their financial expenditures to the Qing government.
War compensation payment was a heavy duty for the Qing dynasty and for that purpose they even
issued bonds to finance the compensation. All provinces of the dynasty participated in the collection of
the funds for the compensation. The Mongolian nobles actively participated in this campaign by donating
the animals, animal husbandry, and raw materials not necessarily for the purpose of aiding the Qing state,
but with materialistic intentions to improve their titles and ranks in return.
When the Manchus conquered Mongolia and established its domination, they introduced new titles,
ranks and privileges along with wages and salary for the Mongolian nobility. In the Qing dynasty
hierarchy Mongols were of the second top importance. In order to attract the Mongolian nobles Manchus
adopted a law in 1857 that approved promotion and increase in titles and ranks based on the size and
types of donations provided by the Mongolian nobles to the imperial state. This law was amended several
times later on. Many Mongolian nobles were promoted after the war based on their donations to the Qing
state. This event was direct outside influence to the Mongolian social structure. All these factors,
including the expansion of the registration beyond the army personnel, animal census and the pertaining
taxation, involvement in the local financial affairs, brought the anti-Manchu sentiments to a whole new
level among the Mongolian population.
The donation campaign for the Qing court turned into a sales of the titles and ranks. Although such
purchases strengthened the social position of the nobles at the time, the endless ambition for better ranks
and titles of such nobles caused poverty and suffering for the general mass.
5
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR /1904-1905/ AND MONGOLIA
When Russia started forming its economic and political sphere of influence in the northeastern part of
China in 1895, the Japanese government was against such policy and began searching ways to stop the
Russian policy towards the Far East. This situation led to the Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905) and the
USA and the Great Britain supported Japan. The war, again, ended in the victory of Japan.
Russo-Japanese war is a relatively well studied subject and the matters on international relations
during the period of this law attracts the consideration of number of scholars. However, there are very
rare studies on the consequences of the shift of power established in the Far East after Russo-Japanese for
Mongolia that was bordering with the Qing dynasty. Mongolian historians L.Jamsran, Sh.Sandag,
J.Urangua, Ts.Batbayar, Russian historian Belov.E.A, and Chinese historian Chen Chunzu specifically
touched the issue of bilateral relationship of the countries in their works. In addition, Taiwanese scholar
Liu Quwen, Zhun E, American scholar Friters.D, Urgunge Onon and Derrick Pritchatt wrote about
international relations in the Northeast Asia and historical events that occurred in China and Mongolia.
Russia expended plenty of money for building the railroad system through the Far East to Manchuria,
but with the defeat in Russo-Japanese war Russia lost its control over the part of railroad system located
in Manchuria. Thus, its intention to have seaport to the Yellow sea and nonfreezing port became
unsuccessful. Then it began to pay more attention to the continental Asia. Mongolia was, as such,
targeted.
Russians decided to renew its approach of spreading their influence in Mongolia by way of using
Russia-Chinese Bank. This bank granted major loans to the Inner Mongolian nobles (nobles residing on
the territory through which the Russian-constructed passed) who were conducting contest and strike
against the settlement of Chinese farmers in accordance with the New Government Policy (the policy that
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was introduced and implemented since the Qing Dynasty (1901) to colonize Mongolia). Moreover, the
Russians were also seeking ways to attract the nobles of Outer Mongolia.
On 24 February 1906, Pokotilov, a Russian diplomat at Beijing Embassy, met with Khanddorj, the
influential noble and the governor of an Outer Mongolian province. In his report on the meeting Pokotilov
wrote:
[…] Khanddorj said, “The Japanese are flattering the [Mongolian] nobles that came to express
greetings to the Qing Emperor for the new moon holiday, and stating that we are the main support
of the Qing Emperor. It is deceitful. We understand the intelligent tricks of the Eastern [Japanese]
boys and there is no way that they can attract us. We firmly understand that our natural neighbors –
the Russians – would become our real trustworthy friends.” But, according to Khanddorj, Russians
seem to forget about Mongolia lately. Aforetime, Russian consulate and border guards had active
relationships, but that is now no longer. I said, “Our relationship is now in this condition due to the
war with Japan. I am seeking your advice on how to fix this stagnation.” Then he said, “You should
attract the Outer Mongolian nobles. Mongolia’s spiritual leader Bogdo Jubzundamba is very
influential person in Khalkha. You should attract him. You can make contact through the
Mongolian lady who has close relations with his religious affairs minister or khutugtu (or the
reincarnated spiritual person).” (Russian State Historical Archives, 1906).
Following Khanddorji’s advice, in order to decrease the Japanese power in Mongolia and to attract
Mongolian nobles, the Minister of Finance of Russia in 1906 granted permission to the Russian Embassy
diplomat in Beijing, Pokotilov, to spend 50 000 rubles from the Russia-Chinese Bank for lobbying nobles
of Outer Mongolia. Additionally, the Russians decided to set up the network for active intelligence
operations throughout Mongolia and to appoint the border commissar Khitroff (aka Hitrov) to be in
charge of such operations under the direct order of a representative in Beijing. Russian consulate at Ikh
Khuree, Lyuba, was directed to maintain close contact with the Mongolian nobles, especially with Bogdo
and his close fellowmen. In a short period of time, through hard work, he obtained the sympathy of the
Mongols.
The Russian traders knew the limits of the Mongolian market. The trading between Russia and
Mongolia did not expand beyond small exchanges and Russia was not giving much hope for Mongolia’s
market. Nevertheless, Russians conducted a research, where it was discovered that Outer Mongolian
market was able to consume goods worth 35-40 million (at the time Outer Mongolian population was
little over 600,000 people). Thus, there was a desire for the Russians to enter Mongolian market. The
statistics of the early 20th century show that the annual working capital of an average large Russian firms
was 500,000 rubles and a small firm was 20,000 rubles. It was a minuscule amount compared to Chinese
trading firms of the time. The Mongolia-Russia import at the time was 25 million rubles and the export
was 20,000 million rubles, while the Chinese capital was 10 times more. The Russian capitalists,
therefore, were interested in expanding their business in Mongolia, unlike the Russian politicians who
were careful with their interference into China-Mongolia issue. The Russian militants, on the other hand,
saw Mongolia as a strategically important territory and were even proposing to takeover Mongolia.
Therefore, it was clear that the two neighbors of Mongolia were more interested in the territory and its
resources rather than the people of Mongolia.
In year 1911, the Mongols started their movement for liberation and they chose to seek support from
Russia. Around that time, China started the capitalist revolution in its Southern part and dual governance
was established in China. Manchu government was established in Beijing and the movement of Xinhai
Revolution took place in Wuchan-In city, the South of China. When it was clear that the Qing dynasty
was close to an end, the decision makers of Mongolia approached its Northern neighbor for support.
Russia agreed to provide Mongolia some limited support for several reasons. In 1860, Russia entered into
Petersburg Agreement with the Qing dynasty and their main trade road (the road was called “Great Tea
Road”) passed through the territory of Mongolia under the provisions of Russia-Qing trade agreement.
They prolonged the trade agreement every 10 years and the next extension of the agreement was coming
in 1911. However, the establishment of a dual government in China and the uncertainty of the Qing’s
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future existence led Russia to accept the request of the Mongols. If the Qing collapsed and China
conquered Mongolia, Russia was under the threat of having a direct border with China for thousands of
kilometers. Therefore, it was beneficial for the Russians to have a buffer state in the south border. In
other words, if Mongolia separated from Manchuria, and Russia established its power over Mongolia
before China, it would have been very beneficial for Russia. That was the main reason for the Russians to
support Mongolia and that was the urge of fighting for its independence.
6
CONCLUSIONS
The Japan-Qing War of 1894-1895 caused the collapse of the existence of domination of Manchu
Qing Dynasty which lasted over 200 years in Asia. After that war, the conqueror Japan began to insist its
wills to China and the western countries conducted active policies toward China and started their
interventions and investment to China. “100 days of reform”, Boxer strike and public rising in 1911-1912
resulted the Qing dynasty to collapse. The victory of Japan put the country in the leading position in its
region. The loss in Russo-Japan war 1904-1905 caused the disseat of the King in Russia. The civil war
started in Qing dynasty and the Outer Mongolia was separated. In February of 1912, the Qing governance
collapsed in China. It was the collapse of 2 empires defining the policy of Eastern Asia. These events not
only made Japan the most powerful country in the region but also opened its way to become the decisionmaking empire of the world.
The geopolitical changes of the 19-20th centuries in the Northeastern Asia were the historical events
that had possible influence in Mongolia to gain national independence revolution of stepping out of the
other’s domination in 1911. That revolution was the starting point of the Renaissance of Mongolia in the
XX Century.
Mongolia gained its independence because of their strong wills and fights. The further will of the
Mongols was dependent on the foreign policies of the two neighbor countries - Russia and China.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank and express my gratitude to the Research and Innovation Department of the
National University of Mongolia for their support and assistance in researching, writing and publishing
this work.
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