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Dr. Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Yeditepe Anatomy
NEUROLOGICAL EXAMINATION
MOTOR & SENSORY FUNCTION
AN ANATOMICAL GUIDE
SHOULDER
To test the deltoid (or the function of the axillary nerve that supplies it), the arm is abducted, starting from
approximately 15°, against resistance. If acting normally, the deltoid can easily be seen and palpated. The
influence of gravity is avoided when the person is supine.
To test the supraspinatus, abduction of the arm is attempted from the fully adducted position against
resistance, while the muscle is palpated superior to the spine of the scapula. The supraspinatus and the middle
deltoid muscles are tested together.
To test the infraspinatus, the person flexes the elbow and adducts the arm. The arm is then laterally
rotated against resistance. If acting normally, the muscle can be palpated inferior to the scapular spine. To test
the function of the suprascapular nerve, which supplies the supraspinatus and infraspinatus, both muscles must be
tested as described. The two lateral rotator muscles; the infraspinatus and teres minör are tested together.
To test for degenerative tendonitis of the rotator cuff, the person is asked to lower the fully abducted limb
slowly and smoothly. From approximately 90° abduction, the limb will suddenly drop to the side in an
uncontrolled manner if the rotator cuff (especially the supraspinatus part) is diseased and/or torn.
ARM
To test the biceps brachii, the elbow joint is flexed against resistance when the forearm is supinated. If
acting normally, the muscle forms a prominent bulge on the anterior aspect of the arm that is easily palpated.
To test the brachialis, the forearm is semipronated and flexed against resistance. If acting normally, the
contracted muscle can be seen and palpated.
To test the triceps (or to determine the level of a radial nerve lesion), the arm is abducted 90° and then the
flexed forearm is extended against resistance provided by the examiner. If acting normally, the triceps can be seen
and palpated. Its strength should be comparable with the contralateral muscle, given consideration for lateral
dominance (right or left handedness).
ANTERIOR COMPARTMENT OF THE FOREARM
To test the flexor carpi ulnaris, the person puts the posterior aspect of the forearm and hand on a flat
table and is then asked to flex the wrist against resistance while the examiner palpates the muscle and its tendon.
To test the palmaris longus, the wrist is flexed and the pads of the little finger and thumb are tightly
pinched together. If present and acting normally, the tendon can be easily seen and palpated.
To test the flexor carpi radialis, the person is asked to flex the wrist against resistance. If acting normally,
its tendon can be easily seen and palpated.
To test the pronator teres, the person's forearm is flexed at the elbow and pronated from the supine
position against resistance provided by the examiner. If acting normally, the muscle is prominent and can be
palpated at the medial margin of the cubital fossa.
To test the flexor digitorum superficialis, one finger is flexed at the proximal interphalangeal joint
against resistance and the other three fingers are held in an extended position to inactivate the flexor digitorum
profundus.
To test the flexor digitorum profundus, the proximal interphalangeal joint is held in the extended
position while the person attempts to flex the distal interphalangeal joint. The integrity of the median nerve in the
proximal forearm can be tested by performing this test using the index finger, and that of the ulnar nerve can be
assessed by using the little finger.
To test the flexor pollicis longus, the proximal phalanx of the thumb is held and the distal phalanx is
flexed against resistance.
POSTERIOR COMPARTMENT OF THE FOREARM & HAND
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To test the brachioradialis, the elbow joint is flexed against resistance with the forearm in the midprone
position. If the brachioradialis is acting normally, the muscle can be seen and palpated.
To test the extensor carpi radialis longus, the wrist is extended and abducted with the forearm pronated. If
acting normally, the muscle can be palpated inferoposterior to the lateral side of the elbow. Its tendon can be
palpated proximal to the wrist.
To test the extensor digitorum, the forearm is pronated and the fingers are extended. The person attempts
to keep the digits extended at the metacarpophalangeal joints as the examiner exerts pressure on the proximal
phalanges by attempting to flex them. If acting normally, the extensor digitorum can be palpated in the forearm,
and its tendons can be seen and palpated on the dorsum of the hand.
To test the extensor carpi ulnaris, the forearm is pronated and the fingers are extended. The extended
wrist is then adducted against resistance. If acting normally, the muscle can be seen and palpated in the proximal
part of the forearm and its tendon can be felt proximal to the head of the ulna.
To test the extensor digiti minimi, the little finger is extended against resistance while holding digits 2-4
flexed at the metacarpophalangeal joints.
To test the abductor pollicis longus, the thumb is abducted against resistance at the metacarpophalangeal
joint. If acting normally, the tendon of the muscle can be seen and palpated at the lateral side of the anatomical
snuff box and on the lateral side of the adjacent extensor pollicis brevis tendon.
To test the extensor pollicis brevis, the thumb is extended against resistance at the metacarpophalangeal
joint. If the extensor pollicis brevis is acting normally, the tendon of the muscle can be seen and palpated at the
lateral side of the anatomical snuff box and on the medial side of the adjacent abductor pollicis longus tendon.
To test the extensor pollicis longus, the thumb is extended against resistance at the interphalangeal joint.
If the extensor pollicis longus is acting normally, the tendon of the muscle can be seen and palpated on the medial
side of the anatomical snuff box.
To test the abductor pollicis brevis, abduct the thumb against resistance. If acting normally, the muscle
can be seen and palpated.
To test the flexor pollicis brevis, flex the thumb against resistance. If acting normally, the muscle can be
seen and palpated; however, keep in mind that the flexor pollicis longus also flexes the thumb.
To test the lumbrical muscles, with the palm facing superiorly the patient is asked to flex the
metacarpophalangeal (MP) joints while keeping the interphalangeal joints extended. The examiner uses one
finger to apply resistance along the palmar surface of the proximal phalanx of digits 2-5 individually. Resistance
may also be applied separately on the dorsal surface of the middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5 to test
extension of the interphalangeal joints, also while flexion of the MP joints is maintained.
To test the dorsal interossei, the examiner holds adjacent extended and adducted fingers between thumb
and middle finger, providing resistance as the individual attempts to abduct the fingers (the person is asked to
“spread the fingers apart”). To test the palmar interossei, a sheet of paper is placed between adjacent fingers.
The individual is asked to “keep the fingers together” to prevent the paper from being pulled away by the
examiner.
SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE BACK
To test the trapezius (or the function of the spinal accessory nerve [CN XI] that supplies it), the shoulder
is shruggedx against resistance (the person attempts to raise the shoulders as the examiner presses down on them).
If the muscle is acting normally, the superior border of the muscle can be easily seen and palpated.
To test the latissimus dorsi (or the function of the thoracodorsal nerve that supplies it), the arm is
abducted 90° and then adducted against resistance provided by the examiner. If the muscle is normal, the anterior
border of the muscle can be seen and easily palpated in the posterior axillary fold.
To test the rhomboids (or the function of the dorsal scapular nerve that supplies them), the individual
places his or her hands posteriorly on the hips and pushes the elbows posteriorly against resistance provided by the
examiner. If the rhomboids are acting normally, they can be palpated along the medial borders of the scapulae;
because they lie deep to the trapezius, they are unlikely to be visible during testing.
PECTORAL REGION & MAMMARY GLANDS
To test the clavicular head of pectoralis major, the arm is abducted 90°; the individual then moves the
arm anteriorly against resistance. If acting normally, the clavicular head can be seen and palpated.
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To test the sternocostal head of the pectoralis major, the arm is abducted 60° and then adducted against
resistance. If acting normally, the sternocostal head can be seen and palpated.
To test the serratus anterior (or the function of the long thoracic nerve that supplies it), the hand of the
outstretched limb is pushed against a wall. If the muscle is acting normally, several digitations of the muscle can
be seen and palpated.
THIGH & POPLITEAL FOSSA
Testing the quadriceps is performed with the person in the supine position with the knee partly flexed. The
person extends the knee against resistance. During the test, contraction of the rectus femoris should be observable
and palpable if the muscle is acting normally, indicating that its nerve supply is intact.
To test the hamstrings, the person flexes his leg against resistance. Normally, these muscles—especially
their tendons on each side of the popliteal fossa—should be prominent as they bend the knee.
LEG
To test the the tibialis anterior, the person is asked to stand on the heels or dorsiflex the foot against
resistance; if normal, its tendon can be seen and palpated.
To test the extensor hallucis longus, the great toe is dorsiflexed against resistance; if acting normally, its
entire tendon can be seen and palpated.
To test the extensor digitorum longus, the lateral four toes are dorsiflexed against resistance; if acting
normally, the tendons can be seen and palpated. The extensor digitorum longus extends the toes and dorsiflexes
the foot at the ankle joint.
To test the fibularis longus and brevis, the foot is everted strongly against resistance; if acting normally,
the muscle tendons can be seen and palpated inferior to the lateral malleolus.
To test the triceps surae, the foot is plantarflexed against resistance (e.g., by “standing on the toes,” in
which case body weight [gravity] provides resistance). If normal, the calcaneal tendon and triceps surae can be
seen and palpated.
To test the flexor hallucis longus, the distal phalanx of the great toe is flexed against resistance; if normal,
the tendon can be seen and palpated on the plantar aspect of the great toe as it crosses the joints of the toe.
To test the flexor digitorum longus, the distal phalanges of the lateral four toes are flexed against
resistance; if they are acting normally, the tendons of the toes can be seen and palpated.
To test the tibilalis posterior, the foot is inverted against resistance with the foot in slight plantarflexion;
if normal, the tendon can be seen and palpated posterior to the medial malleolus.
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Yeditepe Anatomy
RegIons & MUSCLES
Anterior arm: Coracobrachialis
Function
flexion- adduction arm
Brachialis
main flexor of forearm
Biceps brachii
flexor of the forearm @ elbow joint
supinator of forearm when elbow flexed
Posterior arm: Triceps brachii
Function
forearm extension
Anterior forearm sprfcl: Flexor carpi ulnaris Palmaris longus Flexor carpi radialis
Pronator teres
Function
flexor and adductor of wrist
flexor of wrist
flexor,abductor of wrist rotates radius over ulna
Anterior forearm intermediate: Flexor digitorum superficialis
Function
flexes metacarpophalangeal joint- proximal interphalangeal joint , flexes wrist
Anterior forearm deep: Flexor digitorum profundus Flexor pollicis longus
Pronator quadratus
Function
flexes the distal phalanges
flexes thumb
prime mover for pronation
Posterior forearm sprfcl: Brachioradialis Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor carpi radialis brevis Extensor
digitorum Extensor digiti minimi Extensor carpi ulnaris Anconeus
Function Brachioradialis flexion of forearm; maximal when forearm in midpronated position, others extending the hand
(…radialis abducting the hand, …ulnaris adducting the hand)
Posterior forearm deep: Supinator Abductor pollicis longus Extensor pollicis brevis Extensor pollicis longus
Extensor indicis
Function Supinator: supination of forearm, abduction of thumb, extension of proximal (EPB) and distal (EPL) phalanges
Hand: Palmaris brevis
Adductor pollicis
Thenar
Hypothenar
Function
adductor of the thumb
opposition,flexion,abduction
Lumbricals
Interossei
Function flex metacarpophalangeal joints & extendi interphalangeal joints palmar:adduction of fingers, dorsal: abduction @
metacarpophalangeal joints
Latissimus dors
adductor of the humerus; downward rotation of the scapula
Levator scapulae
Rhomboids
Function elevates scapula, or fix it
retract & rotate scapula; assist the serratus anterior in holding the
scapula against the thoracic wall
Deltoid
Subscapularis
Supraspinatus
Function abduction of the arm beyond the initial 15°
Medially rotates arm
initiates & assists deltoid
in abduction of arm
İnfraspinatus Teres minor
Teres major
Function
laterally rotates arm
adducts and medially rotates arm
Back: Serratus posterior superior
Serratus posterior inferior
Function
elevate and depress the ribs
Shoulder: Trapezius
Function rotates the lateral aspect of the scapula upward
Pectoral region: Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor Subclavius
Serratus anterior
Function adduction & medial rotation of the arm pull the tip of the shoulder inferiorly rotates the scapula, elevating its
glenoid cavity so the arm can be
raised above the shoulder
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RegIons & MUSCLES
Gluteal region superficial: Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius & minimus
Tensor fasciae latae
Function
extends the flexed thigh
Abduct and medially rotate thigh
Gluteal region deep: Piriformis Obturator internus Gemellus superior Gemellus inferior Quadratus femoris
Function
abduct flexed thigh (excp q.f.) laterally rotate extended thigh& steady femoral head in acetabulum
Anterior thigh: Ilıopsoas
Quadriceps femoris
Sartorius
Function
chief flexor of the thigh, hip flexor
Extends leg at knee joint
Flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh at
hip joint; flexes leg at knee joint
Medial thigh: Adductor longus Adductor brevis Adductor magnus
Gracilis
Function
Adducts thigh
Adducts thigh; flexes leg; helps rotate leg medially
Pectineus
Obturator externus
Function Adducts and flexes thigh; assists with medial rotation of thigh Laterally rotates thigh; steadies head of femur in
acetabulum
Posterior thigh: Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Function Extend thigh; flex leg & rotate it medially when knee is flexed; when thigh and leg are flexed, these muscles can
extend trunk
Biceps femoris
Function Flexes leg and rotates it laterally when knee is flexed; extends thigh (e.g., accelerating mass during first step of gait)
Anterior leg: Tibialis anterior
Extensor hallucis longus
Function Dorsiflexes ankle and inverts foot
Extends great toe and dorsiflexes ankle
Extensor digitorum longus
Fibularis tertius
Function Extends lateral four digits and dorsiflexes ankle
Dorsiflexes ankle and aids in eversion of foot
Lateral leg: Fibularis longus
Fibularis brevis
Function Everts foot and weakly plantarflexes ankle
Posterior leg superficial: Gastrocnemius
Function
Plantarflexes ankle when knee is extended; raises heel during walking; flexes leg at knee joint
Soleus
Plantaris
Function Plantarflexes ankle independent of position of knee; steadies leg on foot Weakly assists gastrocnemius in
plantarflexing ankle
Posterior leg deep: Popliteus
Flexor hallucis longus
Function
Weakly flexes knee Flexes great toe at all joints; weakly plantarflexes ankle; supports medial longitudinal arch of
foot
Flexor digitorum longus
Tibialis posterior
Function Flexes lateral four digits; plantarflexes ankle; supports longitudinal arches of foot Plantarflexes ankle; inverts foot
Foot (Dorsum): Extensor digitorum brevis
Extensor hallucis brevis
Function
Extends metatarsophalangeal joint of the great toe, and the three middle toes
Foot (Sole,1st layer): Abductor hallucis
Flexor digitorum brevis
Abductor digiti minimi
Function
Abducts and flexes 1st digit Flexes lateral four digits
Abducts and flexes little toe
Foot (Sole,2nd layer): Quadratus plantae
Function
Assists flexor digitorum longus in flexing lateral four digits
Lumbricals
Flex proximal phalanges, extend middle and
distal phalanges of lateral four digits
Foot (Sole,3rd layer): Flexor hallucis brevis
Adductor hallucis
Function
Flexes proximal phalanx of 1st digit adduct 1st digit; assists in transverse arch of foot by metatarsals medially
Flexor digit minimi brevis
Function Flexes proximal phalanx of 5th digit
Foot (Sole,4th layer): Plantar interossei (three muscles)
Dorsal interossei (four muscles)
Function
Adduct digits (2-4) and flex metatarsophalangeal joints Abduct digits (2-4) and flex metatarsophalangeal
joints
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REGIONS & Nerves (Motor INNERVATION ONLY)
Anterior arm: Musculocutaneous nerve
Posterior arm: Radial nerve
Anterior forearm: Median nerve & ulnar nerve (flexor carpi ulnaris, medial half of flexor
digitorum profundus)
Posterior forearm: Radial nerve
Hand: All of the intrinsic muscles of the hand are innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar
nerve except for the three thenar and two lateral lumbrical muscles, which are innervated by
the median nerve.
Shoulder: Axillary nerve, Suprascapular nerve, Sup. & Inf. subscapular nerves, Accessory
nerve [XI], Thoracodorsal nerve, Dorsal scapular nerve
Back: Accessory nerve [XI], Thoracodorsal nerve, Dorsal scapular nerve, Intercostal nerves,
the superior by the first four intercostals and the inferior by the last four
Pectoral region: Lateral and Medial pectoral nerves, Nerve to subclavius, Long thoracic nerve
Gluteal region: Superior gluteal nerve, Inferior gluteal nerve, Nerve to the quadratus femoris,
Nerve to the obturator internus
Anterior thigh: Femoral nerve
Medial thigh: Obturator nerve
Posterior thigh: Sciatic nerve
Anterior leg: Deep peroneal nerve
Lateral leg: Superfical peroneal nerve
Posterior leg: Tibial nerve
Foot: All intrinsic muscles of the foot are innervated by the medial and lateral plantar
branches of the tibial nerve except extensor digitorum brevis, which is innervated by the
deep fibular nerve.
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REGIONS & sensory INNERVATION
Shoulder: supraclavicular nerves (medial,intermediate,lateral) the skin as far as the middle line,
the skin over the pectoralis major and deltoideus, the skin of the upper and posterior parts of the shoulder,
inferior part of the deltoid muscle (axillary nerve)
Anterior arm: inferior lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm (radial nerve) lateral and anterior
aspects of the lower part of the arm medial cutaneous nerve of arm back of the lower third of the arm,
extending as far as the elbow superior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm (axillary nerve) the skin
over the lower two-thirds of the posterior part of the deltoid muscle, as well as that covering the long head of
the triceps brachii
Anterior forearm: medial cutaneous nerve of forearm medial surface of the forearm down to the
wrist lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm (continuation of musculocutaneous nerve) lateral
half of the anterior aspect of the forearm
Posterior arm & forearm: radial nerve posterior aspect of the arm and forearm (posterior cutaneous
nerve of forearm), lower lateral surface of the arm, medial cutaneous nerve of arm medial side of the
distal third of the arm
Hand: superficial branch of the radial nerve dorsolateral aspect of the palm and the dorsal aspects of
the lateral three and one-half digits distally to approximately the terminal interphalangeal joints ulnar
nerve medial side of the palm, medial half of the dorsum of the hand, the 5th finger, and the medial half of
the 4th finger, anterior surfaces of the medial one and a half digits
median nerve thumb,index,middle fingers,lateral side of the ring [distal parts on the dorsum of the hand],
palmar surface of the lateral three and one-half digits and over the lateral side of the palm and middle of the
wrist
Gluteal region: Upper lateral quadrant of the gluteal region is supplied by the lateral branches of the
iliohypogastric (L1) and 12th thoracic nerves (anterior rami).
Superior clunial nerves L1-L3 posterior rami
Skin overlying superior and central parts of buttock
Medial clunial nerves S1-S3 posterior rami
Skin of medial buttock and intergluteal cleft
Inferior clunial nerves
Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh (S2-S3)
Skin of inferior buttock (overlying gluteal fold
Thigh: obturator nerve superior medial thigh, genitofemoral nerve middle anterior thigh,
posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh posterior aspect of the thigh, intermediate cutaneous
nerve of the thigh (femoral nerve) variable area on the medial aspect of the thigh, the medial
cutaneous nerve of the thigh (femoral nerve) medial aspect of the thigh
Leg: saphenous nerve (femoral nerve) medial aspect of leg, posterior cutaneous nerve of the
thigh upper part of the leg superficial fibular nerve anterolateral leg, sural nerve posterolateral leg
Foot: Medially saphenous nerve, which extends distally to the head of 1st metatarsal.
Superiorly (dorsum of foot) superficial (primarily) and deep fibular nerves.
Inferiorly (sole of foot) medial and lateral plantar nerves; the common border of their distribution
extends along the 4th metacarpal and toe or digit. (This is similar to the pattern of
innervation of the palm of the hand.)
Laterally sural nerve, including part of the heel.
Posteriorly (heel) medial and lateral calcaneal branches of the tibial and sural nerves, respectively.
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REGIONS & DERMATOMES
A dermatome is an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve. The areas of skin supplied
by the individual spinal nerves, including those contributing to the plexuses, are called dermatomes. There are
eight cervical nerves (C1 being an exception with no dermatome), twelve thoracic nerves, five lumbar nerves and
five sacral nerves. Each of these nerves relays sensation (including pain) from a particular region of skin to the
brain. The nerve fibers from a particular segment of the spinal cord, although they exit from the cord in a spinal
nerve of the same segment, pass to the skin in two or more different cutaneous nerves.
The dermatomal (segmental) pattern of skin innervation is retained throughout life but is distorted by limb
lengthening and the torsion of the limb that occurs during development.
The dermatomes for the upper cervical segments
C3 to 6 are located along the lateral margin of the
upper limb; the C7 dermatome is situated on the
middle finger; and the dermatomes for C8, T1,
and T2 are along the medial margin of the limb.
The skin over the point of the shoulder and
halfway down the lateral surface of the deltoid
muscle is supplied by the supraclavicular nerves
(C3 and 4). Pain may be referred to this region as
a result of inflammatory lesions involving the
diaphragmatic pleura or peritoneum. The afferent
stimuli reach the spinal cord via the phrenic
nerves (C3, 4, and 5). Pleurisy, peritonitis,
subphrenic abscess, or gallbladder disease may
therefore be responsible for shoulder pain.
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Sensory Innervation of the Lower Limb
Iliohypogastric
(L1; occasionally T12)
superolateral quadrant of buttock
Ilioinguinal
(L1; occasionally T12)
Skin over medial femoral triangle
Genitofemoral
Lumbar plexus (L1-L2)
Femoral branch supplies skin over lateral part of femoral
triangle; genital branch supplies anterior scrotum or labia
majora
Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh
Lumbar plexus (L2-L3)
Skin on anterior and lateral aspects of thigh
Anterior cutaneous branches
Lumbar plexus via femoral nerve (L2-L4)
Skin of anterior and medial aspects of thigh
Cutaneous branch of obturator nerve
Lumbar plexus via obturator nerve, anterior branch (L2L4)
Skin of middle part of medial thigh
Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh
Sacral plexus (S1-S3)
Skin of posterior thigh and popliteal fossa
Saphenous nerve
Lumbar plexus via femoral nerve (L3-L4)
Skin on medial side of leg and foot
Superficial fibular nerve
Common fibular nerve (L4-S1)
Skin of anterolateral leg and dorsum of foot, excluding
web between great and 2nd toes
Deep fibular nerve
Common fibular nerve (L5)
Skin of web between great and 2nd toes
Sural nerve
Tibial and common fibular nerves (S1-S2)
Skin of posterolateral leg and lateral margin of foot
Medial plantar nerve
Tibial nerve (L4-L5)
Skin of medial side of sole, and plantar aspect, sides, and
nail beds of medial 3½ toes
Lateral plantar nerve
Tibial nerve (S1-S2)
Skin of lateral sole, and plantar aspect, sides, and nail
beds of lateral 1½ toes
Calcaneal nerves
Tibial and sural nerves (S1-S2)
Skin of heel
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reflexes
Tendon Reflexes and the Segmental Innervation of Muscles of the Upper Limb
The skeletal muscle receives a segmental innervation. Most muscles are innervated by several spinal nerves
and therefore by several segments of the spinal cord. A physician should know the segmental innervation of the
following muscles because it is possible to test them by eliciting simple muscle reflexes in the patient:
 Biceps brachii tendon reflex: C5 and 6 (flexion of the elbow joint by tapping the biceps tendon)
 Triceps tendon reflex: C6, 7, and 8 (extension of the elbow joint by tapping the triceps tendon)
 Brachioradialis tendon reflex: C5, 6, and 7 (supination of the radioulnar joints by tapping the insertion of the
brachioradialis tendon)
A tap on the tendon of biceps brachii at the elbow is used to test predominantly spinal cord segment C6.
A tap on the tendon of triceps brachii tests predominantly spinal cord segment C7.
Patellar Reflex
The quadriceps femoris is innervated by the femoral nerve. A tap with a tendon hammer on the patellar ligament
therefore tests reflex activity mainly at spinal cord levels L3 and L4.
Calcaneal Tendon Reflex
The ankle jerk reflex, or triceps surae reflex, is a calcaneal tendon reflex. It is a myotatic reflex elicited while the
person's legs are dangling over the side of the examining table. The calcaneal tendon is struck briskly with a reflex
hammer just proximal to the calcaneus. The normal result is plantarflexion of the ankle joint. The calcaneal tendon
reflex tests the S1 and S2 nerve roots. If the S1 nerve root is injured or compressed, the ankle reflex is virtually
absent.
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NEUROLOGICAL EXAM
Online resources
NeuroLogic Examination Videos and Descriptions...an Anatomical Approach
http://library.med.utah.edu/neurologicexam/html/home_exam.html
The Precise Neurological Exam
http://cloud.med.nyu.edu/modules/pub/neurosurgery/
Neuroexam
http://www.neuroexam.com/neuroexam/
Neurologic Examination
http://medinfo.ufl.edu/year1/bcs/clist/neuro.html
The Neurological Examination
http://www.aan.com/familypractice/pdf/FINAL%20THE%20NEUROLOGIC%20EXAMINATION.pdf
What is a Neurological Exam?
http://peripheralneuropathycenter.uchicago.edu/learnaboutpn/evaluation/neuroexam/index.shtml
The Neurological Examination
http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalmed/neuro2.htm
Neurologic Exam
http://www.uic.edu/classes/pmpr/pmpr652/Final/Winkler/NEUROEXM.html
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