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Learning theory
Dr Hayley Andrews
This module looks at behaviourism and the seminal psychological studies carried out at the turn of the 20th
century. These early studies, many of which would not have been permitted today, allowed psychologists and
psychiatrists to start to theorise about how and why we learn new behaviours and acquire knowledge.
Over time, such findings and theories have contributed to the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT),
which is recommended as a first-line treatment for many mood disorders.
Classical conditioning

Behaviourism is a school of psychology that was particularly popular at the beginning of the 20th century.
Behaviourists believe it is possible to predict and understand both animal and human behaviour by
understanding their interaction with the environment.

Classical conditioning is a process during which a previously unimportant or insignificant stimulus acquires
the properties of an important or significant one. A new (learnt) behaviour is acquired by a person or animal
as a result of the association between a stimulus and the response to it, and often involves innate or
autonomic responses.

Pavlov’s famous experiments in 1927 showed that it is only in the process of learning that a neutral
stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, by being paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus.

Watson & Rayner (1920) carried out a series of experiments with ‘Little Albert’. They started to bang
together two metal bars behind his head when he reached out to play with a white rat. This led to a startle
reaction and distress. Eventually just the sight of the rat would cause Albert distress. Watson argued that
his work had helped to demonstrate the mechanism of phobia development.
Operant conditioning

Thorndike (1911) described a ‘law of effect’ in which he postulated that if an action were followed by a
reward then that action would be strengthened. However if an action wasn’t followed by a reward then it
would be weakened.

Skinner (1938) stated that while in classical conditioning the animal responds to external stimuli (e.g. the
bell and salivation), in operant conditioning learning is dependent on the animal learning to operate in
some way to make a change that leads to a consequence.

Animals and humans can learn to discriminate stimuli, but also to generalise their experiences. An example
of generalisation is that Little Albert became afraid not just of the white rat, but anything white and furry.

The conditioned response can be extinguished if the conditioned stimulus (for example the bell) is
repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food). This is known as extinction.

Learning in operant conditioning is driven by the consequences of behaviour.

A reinforcer is anything that increases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring. Learning can vary in rate
according to the use of different schedules of reinforcement.

Punishment is anything that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring.
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Learning Theory
The Royal College of Psychiatrists
Trainees Online
Social learning theory and cognitive models

Social learning theory highlights the importance of observational or vicarious learning in the development of
new behaviours.

Bandura’s seminal bobo doll experiment demonstrated the impact of observing aggressive behaviour on
the subsequent re-enactment of such behaviour

Cognitive theorists suggest that learning is more active than that suggested by the behaviourists, with the
crucial feature being the development of new knowledge and understanding which allows learning to occur.
Clinical applications of behaviourism and learning theory

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), which assumes both the perspectives of the behavioural and
cognitive theorists, is often used in the treatment of phobias.

In CBT the patient may be asked to create an anxiety hierarchy. In CBT today, rather than relaxation
techniques being used, a concept of graded exposure is employed. In this it is the progressive movement
up the hierarchy that is important, relying on the fact that maintained levels of anxiety are unlikely to last for
long and a patient will become more used to it, this is known as habituation.

Seligman argued that people with depression learn to become helpless, they tend to withdraw and believe
that all acts will result in failure, thereby not attempting any.

In CBT behaviour activation encourages patients with depression to challenge helpless cognitions by
asking them to do something every day that gives a sense of achievement and another act that provides
some pleasure.

Cueing, covert sensitisation and aversion therapy are important in understanding addiction and their role in
contributing to relapse or helping recovery.

The Premack principle: this is an operant conditioning concept that parents use regularly. More desired
behaviours (and hence reinforcers) become dependent upon the less desired behaviour being performed
adequately.

Token economies rely on the reward of nominated tokens, which are accumulated until a target has been
reached; at which point they can be exchanged for an agreed reward (reinforcer).
References
Bandura A, Walters RH (1963) Social learning and personality development. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Pavlov I (1927) Conditioned Reflexes. Oxford University Press.
Seligman MEP, Maier S (1967) Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74: 1–9.
Skinner BF (1938) The behaviour of organisms. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Thorndike EL (1911) Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies. Macmillan.
Further reading
Gleitman H, Gross J, Reisberg D (2010) Psychology Chapter 7. , 8th edition: Norton.
McCleod, SA (2007) Behaviourist approach (http://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html)
McCleod, SA (2007) Classical conditionin [http://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html]
Tantum D, Birchwood M (1994) The Royal College of Psychiatrists Seminar Series: Seminars in Psychology and
the Social Sciences, 2nd edition: Chapter on learning theory. Royal College of Psychiatrists.
© Royal College of Psychiatrists
Learning Theory