Download Memory - Helena High School

Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves
Difficulty of Task
• Was the exercise easy or difficult.
It depends on what factors?
•Whether you like Disney movies
•how long ago you watched the movie
•how loud the people are around you when
you are trying to remember
Turn your paper over.
Now pick pick out the seven
dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy
Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful
Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach
Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy
Stubby Poopy
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory
exercise?
Recall v. Recognition
With recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill-inthe blank tests).
With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets
(multiple-choice tests).
Which is easier?
As you might have guessed, the next topic
we are going to examine is…….
Memory
The persistence of learning over time
through the storage and retrieval of
information.
Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) shortterm memory, and c) long-term memory.
Problems with the Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory
information in the environment, we select
information (through attention) that is
important to us.
3. The nature of short-term memory is more
complex.
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory: The immediate, initial
recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-Term: Memory that holds a few items briefly
The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten.
Mr. Short Term Memory-SNL
Long-Term Memory:The relatively permanent and
limitless storehouse of the memory system.
H.M Memory on NPR
The Memory process
Crash Course Psychology #13
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory
system.
Asking for a girl’s number at a party
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
Remembering her name when you call her
Retrieval:The process of getting the information out of memory
storage.
Calling her by the wrong name
Two ways to encode information
Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
You encode space, time and word meaning without effort.
Things can become automatic with practice.
For example, if I tell you that you are a jerk, you will
encode the meaning of what I am saying to you without
any effort.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique.
Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.
Rehearsal
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions
were required to
remember them on Day
2.
Take out a piece of paper and….
List the U.S. Presidents
The Presidents
Washington
J.Adams
Jefferson
Madison
Monroe
JQ Adams
Jackson
Van Buren
Harrison
Tyler
Polk
Taylor
Fillmore
Pierce
Buchanan
Lincoln
A.Johnson
Grant
Hayes
Garfield
Arthur
Cleveland
Harrison
Cleveland
McKinley
T.Roosevelt
Taft
Wilson
Harding
Coolidge
Hoover
FD.Roosevelt
Truman
Eisenhower
Kennedy
L.Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
Reagan
Bush
Clinton
Bush Jr.
Obama
Memory Effects
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious
about being next that you cannot remember
what the person just before you in line says,
but you can recall what other people around
you say.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
Serial Positioning Effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first
items in a list.
Presidents
Recalled
If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it
would probably look something like this.
Encoding exercise
Types of Encoding
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like
the meaning of words
•Acoustic Encoding: the encoding
of sound, especially the sounds of
words.
•Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture images.
Which type works best?
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Stephen Wiltshire draws NYC
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in
aiding memory.
"
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
Link Method
List of Items
Newspaper
Shaving cream
Pen
Umbrella
.
.
.
Lamp
Involves forming a mental image of items to be
remembered in a way that links them together.
Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar,
manageable units.
Often it will occur automatically.
Acronyms-HOMES = Huron,
Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior
1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
Do these numbers mean anything to you? Chunk- from Goonies
1492, 1776, 1812, 1941 how about now?
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
Storage
HOW WE RETAIN THE INFORMATION WE ENCODE
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
Storage and Short-Term Memory
Lasts usually
between 3 to 12
seconds.
Can store 7 (plus or
minus two) chunks of
information.
We recall digits
better than letters.
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
How are the Memories Stored?
Synaptic Changes
Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP) A
long-lasting change in
the structure or
function of a synapse
that increase the
efficiency of neural
transmission.
Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Hormones such as Epinephrine act on
brain centers in the brain
Extreme stress undermines learning
and later recall
How does this apply to an exam?
Brain
structures
Hippocampus: turns STM into LTM
The hippocampus (named after its resemblance to
the seahorse, from the Greek hippos meaning "horse"
and kampos meaning "sea monster")
Where Are Memories Stored?
Biological Forgetting Factors
Damage to the Hippocampus
◦ Difficulty forming new memories
◦ Diminished in Alzheimer’s patients
Neurotransmitters play a role
◦ Acetylcholine
◦ Alzheimer’s patients show low levels of this
Decay theory
◦ Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time
◦ Distractor Studies – information fades from STM
Retrieval
HOW DO WE RECALL THE INFORMATION
WE THOUGHT WE REMEMBERED?
Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Retrieval Cues
Priming
•We often use a process called priming
(the activation of associations in our
memory) to help us retrieve information.
Give out priming worksheet
•For the most part, the priming effect is considered
involuntary and is most likely an unconscious
phenomenon. The priming effect basically consists of
repetition priming and semantic priming.
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
truck
red
hose
Repetition Priming
1. Repetition priming refers to the fact that it is easier
(quicker) to recognize a face or word if you have recently
seen that same face or word.
Semantic Priming
2. Semantic priming refers to the fact that it is
easier (quicker) to recognize someone or word if
you have just seen someone or a word closely
associated.
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent
with our current mood. Emotions, or moods,
serve as retrieval cues.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not
encode.
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to
their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with
his forgetting curve.
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure
phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells
red?) the subject says the word begins with an H
(hemoglobin).
Interference
Learning some new information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
Types of Retrieval Failure
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect
of prior learning on
the recall of new
information.
If you call your new girlfriend your
old girlfriend’s name.
Types of Retrieval Failure
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of
new learning on the recal
of old information.
When you finally remember this
years locker combination, you
forget last years.
Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it
leads to better recall.
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Culver Pictures
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
Motivated Forgetting
Why does is exist?
One explanation is REPRESSION:
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense
mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings and memories from
consciousness.
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at
any memory stage. We
filter, alter, or lose much
information during
these stages.
False Memories
Elizabeth Loftus
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood
episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of a traumatic experience,
which is sometimes induced by well-meaning
therapists.
Flashbulb Memory
A unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to
a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb
memory. However, this memory is not free from errors.
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if
leading questions are posed. However, if
cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the
accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of
sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower
percentage of abuse.
Memories of Abuse
Are memories of abuse repressed or
constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early
childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
memories.
However, other psychologists question such
beliefs and think that such memories may be
constructed.
Improving Memory
1.
Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
2.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the
material.
3.
Make material personally meaningful.
4.
Use mnemonic devices:
5.
6.
7.



associate with peg words — something already stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and
mood.
Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter
misinformation.
Minimize interference:
1.
2.
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.