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Introduction: Anatomy and Physiology Organization of the body, Chemistry of life and Homeostasis Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body Anatomy: science of the structure and shape of the body and its parts. Physiology: science of the functions of organisms; subdivisions named by: Organism involved: human or plant physiology Organizational level: molecular or cellular physiology Systemic function: respiratory physiology, neurophysiology, or cardiovascular physiology Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Branches of Anatomy Gross anatomy: study of the body and its parts that relies only on what the eye can see as a tool for observation Microscopic anatomy: study of small body parts with a microscope Cytology: study of cells Histology: study of tissues Developmental anatomy: study of human growth and development Pathological anatomy: study of diseased body structures Systemic anatomy: study of the body by systems Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Levels of Organization From Atoms to Organisms 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Chemical Level Cellular Level Tissue Level Organ Level Organ System Level Organismal Level Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: Chemical Level Organization of chemical structures separates living material from nonliving material Organization of atoms, molecules, and macromolecules results in living matter—a gel called cytoplasm Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: Cellular Level Cells: smallest and most numerous units that possess and exhibit characteristics of life Each cell has a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a limiting membrane Cells differentiate to perform unique functions Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Tissue Level Tissue: an organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function Tissue cells are surrounded by nonliving matrix Four major tissue types Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Organ Level Organ: organization of several different kinds of tissues to perform a specific function Organs represent discrete and functionally complex operational units Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance, and placement in the body Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION System Level Systems: most complex organizational units of the body System level involves varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions Support and movement Communication, control, and integration Transportation and defense Respiration, nutrition, and excretion Reproduction and development Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Organ System overview 1. Integumentary System 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System 5. Endocrine System 6. Cardiovascular System 7. Lymphatic System 8. Respiratory System 9. Digestive System 10. Urinary System 11. Reproductive System Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Organism The living human organism is greater than the sum of its parts All the components interact to allow the human being to survive and flourish Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Maintaining life Homeostasis Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Necessary Life Functions Maintain boundaries Movement Locomotion Movement of substances Responsiveness Ability to sense changes and react Digestion Break-down and absorption of nutrients Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Necessary Life Functions Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body Produces energy Makes body structures Catabolism- chemical break down of complex molecules into simpler molecules; releases energy Anabolism- chemical reaction that joins simple molecules to form more complex molecules Excretion Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Necessary Life Functions Reproduction Produces future generation Growth Increases cell size and number of cells Nutrients Chemicals for energy and cell building Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals Oxygen Required for chemical reactions Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Survival Needs Water 60–80% of body weight Provides for metabolic reaction Stable body temperature Atmospheric pressure Must be appropriate Interrelationships Among Body Systems Figure 1.3 Image from: Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc,. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment A dynamic state of equilibrium Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life Homeostatic imbalance A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease Body adjusts important variables from a normal set point in an acceptable or normal range Examples of homeostasis: Temperature regulation Regulation of blood carbon dioxide level Regulation of blood glucose level Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Control center Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to activate Effector Receptor (sensor) Change detected by receptor Stimulus: Produces change in variable Variable (in homeostasis) Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis Figure 1.4 Image from: Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc,. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Control center Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to activate Effector Receptor (sensor) Change detected by receptor Stimulus: Produces change in variable Variable (in homeostasis) Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis Image from: Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc,. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings Maintaining Homeostasis The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems Receptor Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) Sends information to control center Control center Determines set point Analyzes information Determines appropriate response Effector Provides a means for response to the stimulus Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Feedback Mechanisms: Negative Feedback Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity Works like a household thermostat Are inhibitory Stabilize physiological variables Produce an action opposite to the change that activated the system Are responsible for maintaining homeostasis Are much more common than positive feedback control systems Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Feedback Mechanisms: Positive Feedback Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther Are stimulatory Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis Bring specific body functions to swift completion In the body this occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Feedback Mechanisms: Level of Control Intracellular control Regulation within cells Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processes Intrinsic control (autoregulation) Regulation within tissues or organs May involve chemical signals May involve other “built in” mechanisms Extrinsic control Regulation from organ to organ May involve nerve signals May involve endocrine signals (hormones) Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. The Chemical Basis of Life BASIC CHEMISTRY Elements and compounds Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space Element: simple form of matter; a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more different substances Compound: atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Elements in Living Organisms The most common elements found in living organisms include: Carbon (C) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N) Hydrogen (H) Phosphorus (P) Sulfur (S) Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Biochemistry Living things require millions of chemical reactions within the body, just to survive. Metabolism = all the chemical reactions occurring in the body. Organic molecules: usually associated with living things. always contain CARBON. are “large” molecules, with many atoms always have covalent bonds (share electrons) Inorganic compounds: few have carbon atoms and none have C–C or C–H bonds Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. INORGANIC MOLECULES Water The body’s most abundant and important compound Oxygen Required to complete decomposition reactions necessary for the release of energy in the body Carbon dioxide Produced as a waste product and helps maintain the appropriate acid-base balance in the body Electrolytes Large group of inorganic compounds that includes acids, bases, and salts Substances that dissociate in solution to form ions Act as buffers Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ORGANIC MOLECULES: Carbohydrates Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; commonly called sugars and starches. Used for energy and structure Includes three types: Monosaccharide (1 sugar – quick energy) Disaccharide (2 sugars – short storage) Polysaccharide (many sugars – energy long storage & form structures) Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ORGANIC MOLECULES: Lipids Insoluble in water (think oil & water) Used for energy and structural support 4 types: 1-triglycerides (fats & oils) 2-phospholipids (primary component of cell membrane) 3-steroids (cell signaling) (long-term energy storage, insulation) cholesterol molecules modified to form sex hormones. (e.g. testosterone, estrogen, etc.) 4-waxes (protection, prevents water loss) Used mainly by plants, but also bees, some furry animals and humans. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Phospholipids Steroids ORGANIC MOLECULES Proteins Most abundant organic compounds Chainlike polymers Amino acids: building blocks of proteins Essential amino acids: eight amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body Nonessential amino acids: 12 amino acids that can be produced from molecules available in the human body Amino acids consist of a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain Support structural proteins (e.g., keratin, collagen) Enzymes speed up chemical reactions Transport cell membranes channels, transporters in blood (e.g., Hemoglobin) Defense antibodies of the immune system Hormones cell signaling (e.g., insulin) Motion contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin) Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Collagen Antibodies ORGANIC MOLECULES: Nucleic Acid Nucleotides: building blocks of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide contains (a) phosphate molecule, (b) nitrogenous base, and (c) 5-carbon sugar Several types of nucleic acids, including: DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid Genetic material, double stranded helix RNA: ribonucleic acid Genetic material, single stranded ATP: adenosine triphosphate High energy compound Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. DNA Nucleotide Structure Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2007, 2003 by Mosby. Inc. and affiliate of Elsevier Inc.