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Limits of a Super Power If, when the chips are down, the world’s most powerful nation, the United States, acts like a pitiful, helpless giant, the forces of totalitarianism and anarchy will threaten free nations and free institutions throughout the world. -Richard Nixon, Address to the Nation, April 30, 1970 Main Ideas • Domestic and Foreign policies of President Nixon • The Vietnam War and its conclusion • Détente with the Soviets and Chinese • The Watergate scandal • Resignation of President Nixon The Highs and Lows • In 1969, TV viewers around the world witnessed the astonishing sight of two American astronauts walking on the moon • This event, followed by a series of successes for the U.S. space program represented the high points of the era • Offsetting these technological triumphs were shocking revelations about the White House participation in the Watergate crime, a stagnant economy, and the fall of South Vietnam to communism • Increased foreign economic competition, oil shortages, rising unemployment, and high inflation made Americans less certain of an ever changing, less manageable world Richard Nixon’s Foreign Policy Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974, when he became the only president to resign the office. • In his January 1969 inaugural address, President Nixon promise to bring the nation together after the turmoil of the 1960s • Soon after winning the election, however, Nixon isolated himself in the White House (focused on international relations) • Together with his national security advisor Henry Kissinger, later in his second term secretary of state, President Nixon fashioned a generally successful foreign policy that reduced tensions of the cold War Vietnam Phan Thị Kim Phúc, center, running down a road near Trảng Bàng, Vietnam, on 8 June 1972, after a napalm bomb was dropped on the village of Trảng Bàng • When Nixon took office, more than a half a million troops were in Vietnam • His principle objective was to find a way to reduce U.S. involvement while avoiding the appearance of conceding defeat • In a word, Nixon said the U.S. was seeking nothing less than “peace with honor” Vietnamization Henry Kissinger was the architect of the process of Vietnamization • Almost immediately, the new president began the process called “Vietnamization”or the gradual withdrawal of U.S. forces and the funding for more weapons and training for South Vietnamese forces to fight the war • U.S. troops in South Vietnam went from 540,000 in 1969 to under 30,000 in 1972 • Extending the idea of disengagement to other parts of Asia, the president proclaimed the Nixon Doctrine-declaring in the future Asian allies would receive U.S. support but without the extensive use of U.S. ground forces Opposition to Nixon’s War Policies Nixon delivers an address to the nation about the bombings in Cambodia, April 30, 1969 • Nixon’s gradual withdrawal of forces from Vietnam at first reduced antiwar protests • In April 1970, the president expanded the war by using U.S. forces to invade Cambodia in an effort to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases • A nationwide protest on U.S. college campuses erupted- four students were killed by National Guard troops at Kent State and two black students at Jackson State • In reaction to the escalation of the war, the U.S. Senate voted to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Opposition to Nixon’s War Policies Antiwar protests • Also in 1970, the American public was shocked to learn about the 1968 massacre of women and children by U.S. troops in the Vietnamese village of My Lai • Further fueling the antiwar sentiment was the publication by The New York Times of the Pentagon Papers-a secret government history documenting the mistakes and deceptions of government policy-makers in dealing with Vietnam • The papers were turned over, or “leaked” to the press by Daniel Ellsberg (former Defense Department analyst) Peace Talks, Bombing Attacks, and Armistice • On the diplomatic front, Nixon and Kissinger conducted secret meetings with North Vietnam’s foreign minister, Le Duc Tho • Kissinger announced in the fall of 1972 that “peace is at hand,” but this announcement proved premature • When the North Vietnamese failed to compromise, Nixon ordered massive bombing of North Vietnam to force a settlement • B-52 bombers attacked over several weeks until North Vietnam agreed to an armistice Peace Talks, Bombing Attacks, and Armistice Signing at the peace talks • The Paris Accords of January 1973 also promised a cease-fire and free elections • The armistice allowed the U.S. to extricate itself from the war that claimed over 58,000 American lives • The $118 billion spent on the war began the inflationary cycle that hurt the U.S. economy for years afterward Détente With China and the Soviet Union President Nixon greets Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong (left) in a historic visit to the People's Republic of China, 1972. • Nixon and Kissinger strengthened the U.S. position in the world by taking advantage of the rivalry between the two Communist giants, China and the Soviet Union • Their diplomacy was praised for bringing about détente- a deliberate reduction of Cold War tension Visit to China: -Nixon arranged secret meetings with Chinese leaders and shocked the American people when he visited China in February 1972 -This step initiated diplomatic exchanges that eventually led to U.S. recognition of the Communist government in 1979 Arms Control with the U.S.S.R. Nixon meets with Brezhnev during the Soviet leader's trip to the U.S. in 1973 • Nixon used his new relationship with China to put pressure on the Soviets to agree to a treaty limiting antiballistic missiles (ABMs) • This new technology would have expanded the arms race, however, the first round of Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I) produced an agreement to reduce the number of ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads • While this agreement did not end the arms race, it was a significant step towards reducing Cold War tension and bring about détente Nixon’s Domestic Policy Nixon answering questions • Throughout the 1970s, the Democrats held majorities in both houses of Congress • President Nixon lived with this reality and obtained some concessions from Congress through moderation and compromise • Nixon laid the foundation for a shift in public opinion toward conservatism and for Republican gains that would capture the Congress in the 1990s The New Federalism • Nixon tried to slow down the growth of Johnson’s Great Society programs by proposing the Family Assistance Plan- a reform of the welfare system • The Democrat controlled Congress easily defeated his proposed plan, however, Nixon succeeded in shifting some of the responsibility for social programs to the state and local levels • In a program known as revenue sharing (New Federalism), Congress approved giving local governments $30 billion in block grants over five years to address local needs • Republicans hoped that revenue sharing would check the growth of the federal government and return power to the states Nixon’s Economic Policies • Starting with a recession in 1970, the U.S. economy throughout the decade faced the unusual combination of economic slowdown and high inflation-a condition known as stagflation • Nixon tried cutting federal spending-led to more unemployment and the U.S. stayed in a recession • When he adopted Keynesian economics (deficit spending), took the nation off the gold standard, imposed a 90-day wage and price freeze, and a 10%surtax on all imports-the U.S. balance of trade with foreign nations improved and the U.S was out of the recession by 1972 Southern Strategy • Nixon received just 43% of the popular vote in 1968 making him a minority president • He devised a political strategy to form a Republican majority by appealing to million of voters who were disaffected by: (1) Antiwar protest (2) Black militants (3) School busing to achieve racial balance (4) The excesses of the youth counterculture movement • Nixon referred to these conservative Americans as the “silent majority” • Many of these Americans were Democrats, such as southern whites, Catholic ethnics, blue-collar workers, and suburbanites Southern Strategy continued… Spiro Theodore Agnew was an American politician who served as the 39th Vice President of the United States from 1969 to 1973, serving under President Richard Nixon • To win over the South, the president asked the federal courts in that region to delay integration plans and busing orders • He also nominated two southern conservatives (Clement Haynsworth and G. Harold Carswell) to the Supreme Court • The Senate refused to confirm them and the courts rejected his requests for delays, however, the strategy played well with southern white voters • At the same time, Nixon had his Vice President Spiro Agnew verbally assault both war protesters and the liberal press The Burger Court Warren Earl Burger was the 15th Chief Justice of the United States from 1969 to 1986. • Four resignations of older justices from the Supreme Court gave Nixon the opportunity to replace liberal, activist members of the Warren Court with more conservative, strict constructionist justices • In 1969 he appointed Warren E. Burger as chief justice to succeed the retiring Earl Warren • After the two conservative nominees were rejected by Congress, the president selected a more moderate Harry Blackmun • His next two appointments, Lewis Powell and William Rehnquist were both approved The Election of 1972 George McGovern speaking at an October 1972 campaign rally • The success of Nixon’s Southern strategy became evident in the election of 1972 when the Republican ticket won majorities in every southern state • Nixon’s election was assured by: (1) Foreign policy successes in China and the Soviet Union (2) The removal of George Wallace from the race by an assassin’s bullet (paralyzed) (3) The nomination by the Democrats of a very liberal, antiwar, antiestablishment candidate George McGovern Election Day Outcome Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Nixon/Agnew, Blue denotes those won by McGovern/Shriver. Gray is the electoral vote for John Hospers by a Virginia faithless elector. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state • On election day, Nixon won a landslide victory by capturing 60.8% of the popular vote and every states electoral votes except Massachusetts • The Democrats still managed to keep control of both house of Congress • Nevertheless, the voting patterns for Nixon indicated the start of a major political realignment of the Sunbelt and suburban voters forming a new Republican majority • Nixon’s electoral triumph in 1972 made the Watergate revelations and scandals of 1973 all the more surprising Watergate • The tragedy of Watergate went well beyond the public humiliation of Nixon and the conviction and jailing of 26 White House officials and aids • Watergate paralyzed the political system in the mid70s, a critical time both at home and overseas Watergate Complex White House Abuses John Newton Mitchell was the Attorney General of the United States from 1969 to 1972 under President Richard Nixon and director of CREEP. Due to his involvement in the Watergate affair, he was sentenced to prison in 1977, serving 19 months • In June 1972, a group of men hired by Nixon’s reelection committee were caught breaking into the offices of the Democratic national headquarters in the Watergate complex • The break-in and attempted bugging were only part of a series of illegal activities conducted by Nixon’s administration and the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) • Before Watergate, Nixon had ordered wiretaps on government employees and reporters to stop news leaks like the secret bombing of Cambodia • The president’s aides created a group called the “plumbers” to stop these leaks or discredit their opponents White House Abuses continued… Daniel Ellsberg is a former United States military analyst who, while employed by the RAND Corporation, precipitated a national political controversy in 1971 when he released the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study of U.S. government decisions in Vietnam • The “plumbers” burglarized the office of the psychiatrist of Daniel Ellsberg, the person behind the leaking of the Pentagon Papers (to discredit) • The White House created an “enemies list” of prominent Americans who opposed Nixon, the Vietnam War, or both • People on this list were investigated by government agencies, such as the IRS • The break-ins reflected a general attitude in the Nixon administration that any means could be used to promote national security Watergate Investigation Sam Ervin (right), as chair of the Senate Watergate Committee • There was no solid proof that President Nixon ordered any of these illegal activities • After months of investigation: (1) It was clear that Nixon engaged in an illegal cover-up (2) Tough sentencing by federal judge John Sirica led to information about bribes and promised pardons by White House staff (3) Democrat Senator Sam Ervin brought the abuses to the attention of the American people Watergate Investigation Archibald Cox The Saturday Night Massacre was the term given by political commentators to U.S. President Richard Nixon's executive dismissal of independent special prosecutor Archibald Cox, and the resignations of Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus on October 20, 1973 during the Watergate scandal (4) A highlight of the hearings involved White House lawyer John Dean who linked the president to the cover-up (5) Nixon’s top aides, H.R. Haldeman and John John Ehrlichman resigned to protect him but were later indicted for obstructing justice (6) The discovery of an Oval Office taping system led to a year-long struggle between Nixon (executive privilege) and investigators (prove cover-up charges) (7) During the investigation Vice President Agnew was forced to resign for having taken bribes when governor of Maryland Other Developments in 1973 • Although Watergate absorbed most of Nixon’s attention during his short second term, other developments at home and abroad were important War Powers Act: -Nixon’s secret bombing raids in Cambodia and its negative effect with the American people gave the Congress a chance to limit the president’s powers over the military -Congress passed the War Powers Act over Nixon’s veto requiring Nixon and any future president to report to Congress within 48 hours after taking military action -It further provided that Congress would have to approve any military action that lasted more than 60 days October War and Oil Embargo A wrecked Israeli tank during the early days of the Yom Kippur War • In world politics of 1973, the most important event was the outbreak of another war in the Middle East • On October 6, the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, the Syrians and Egyptians launched a surprise attack on Israel in an attempt to recover the lands lost in the Six Day War of 1967 • Nixon ordered the U.S. nuclear forces on alert and airlifted almost $2 billion in arms to Israel to stem their retreat • The tide of the battle quickly turned in favor of the Israelis and the war ended • The U.S. was made to pay a huge price for supporting Israel October War and Oil Embargo continued… • The Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) placed an oil embargo on any supporter of Israel • The embargo caused a worldwide oil shortage and long lines at gas stations in the U.S. • It had a tremendously negative effect on the U.S. economy which included: (1) Runaway inflation (2) Loss of manufacturing jobs (3) Lower standard of living for blue collar workers (4) Consumers switched to smaller more fuel efficient Japanese cars (loss of automobile jobs) (5) Congress enacted a 55-miles-per-hour speed limit to conserve fuel Resignation of a President Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of the Watergate tapes, April 29, 1974 • In October of 1973, Nixon fired Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor assigned to the Watergate investigations (U.S. attorney general resigned in protest) • The Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to turn over the Oval Office tapes to the courts and Congress (United States v. Nixon) • The start of impeachment in the Congress in 1974 convinced the House Judiciary Committee to render three articles of impeachment (1) Obstruction of justice (2) Abuse of power (3) Contempt of Congress • Faced with certain impeachment, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974 and Vice President Gerald Ford took the oath of office (first unelected president in U.S. history) Significance • To some, the final outcome of the Watergate scandal proved that the U.S. constitutional system of checks and balances worked • For others, the scandal underlined the dangerous shift of power to the presidency that started with FDR and expanded during the Cold War • Without a doubt, Watergate contributed to a growing loss of faith in the federal government Nixon leaving the White House after his resignation Timeline • • • • 1969 - Men land on the moon - My Lai massacre revealed - Nixon "Silent Majority" speech - Woodstock rock concert 1970 - U.S. troops invade Cambodia on orders of President Nixon 1971 - Twenty-sixth Amendment (voting age) - Pentagon Papers published - New Economic Program - price control 1972 - Watergate break-in by agents of the Republican White House; "cover-up" begins - Death penalty decisions (Furman v. Georgia and others) of the Supreme Court - President Nixon visits Communist China - Senate passes Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) but it is not ratified by states - SALT disarmament treaty signed Timeline • • 1973 - Vice President Agnew forced to resign; -Gerald Ford chosen as vice president by Nixon with congressional approval - Roe v. Wade - Existence of White House tapes revealed as part of Watergate investigation -"Saturday Night Massacre" -Resignation of Attorney General Eliot Richardson and Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox over Watergate - United States negotiates withdrawal from Vietnam 1974 - Presidential impeachment hearings - U.S. v. Nixon -President Nixon resigns presidency; Gerald Ford becomes thirty-eighth president Key Names, Events, and Terms • • • • • • • • • • • Richard Nixon Henry Kissinger Vietnamization Nixon Doctrine Kent State My Lai Pentagon Papers Paris Accords 1973 Détente China visit Soviet Union; Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) • New Federalism • stagflation • • • • • • • • • Southern strategy Warren Burger; Burger Court George McGovern Watergate; articles of impeachment United States v. Nixon War Powers Act (1973) Middle East War (1973) OPEC; oil embargo Gerald Ford Question Which of the following BEST reflected President Nixon’s policy of “Vietnamization”? (a) Massive bombing of North Vietnam by American air power (b) Full-scale invasion of Cambodia to end the Communist threat (c) Gradual withdrawal of American armed forces from Vietnam (d) Turning the war in South Vietnam over to United Nations forces (e) Stopping all American military and economic aid to South Vietnam Answer C: Gradual withdrawal of American armed forces from Vietnam