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PD/H/PE
Factors Affecting Performance
How does training affect performance?
1. Energy Systems
The energy source for the body is ATP, when the third phosphate molecule is split, heat
and energy are released due to the breaking of high energy bonds and the third phosphate
molecule has to be resynthesised. The body does this using 3 energy systems
ATP/PC system (alactacid system)
 Intensity of effort: very high, 85-100% of max effort, explosive actions
 Duration: 10-12 seconds. ATP splitting (2sec) cretin-phosphate (8-10sec
following)
 Fuel: Cretin Phosphate is fuel, only used after ATP has been used
 Waste Products: none
 Recovery Time: cretin phosphate is naturally replenished by the body in up to 2
mins
 Examples: 100m sprint, weight lifting, discus, javelin, high jump
Lactic Acid (Anaerobic Glycolosis, Lactate System)
 Intensity of effort: 75-85%. This is the point at which lactic acid is produced
 Duration: varies, if working at 85% 30 secs, if working at 60% up to 30 mins,
but usually 2-4mins
 Fuel: glycogen (carbohydrates are broken down in the body
blood glucose
glycogen)
 Waste Products: lactic acid
 Recovery Time: 30mins-1hr to break down lactic acid, if glycogen all depleted ,
it takes 24hrs to replenish glycogen stores
 Examples: 200m, 400m sprint, 100m swim, 800 run
Aerobic System (Aerobic Glycolosis, Oxidative)
 Intensity of effort: low intensity, up to 75%
 Duration: at low intensity there is no limit because virtually unlimited fat stores,
no limiting waste products as they are released, no real limit as we can switch to
lactic acid
 Source of Fuel: Carbohydrates, fats, glycogen, protein
 Fuel: Carbohydrates, fats, glycogen, in extreme cases protein
 Waste Products: Carbon Dioxide which is breathed out, water which is removed
from the body as sweat and water vapor, cooled as evaporated off skin
 Recovery Time: can take up to 48hrs depending on intensity
 Examples: marathon, long distance walking, netball triathlon
Summary: energy systems should not be thought of as operating independently of one
another. Although these systems have individual features they actually function together
however given specific activities we can determine which energy system is the dominant
energy system been utilized at a particular point in time.
2. Principles of Training
Progressive Overload
Implies gains in fitness will occur only when the training load is greater than normal and
is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur. Training produces certain
physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity. As the
body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it and further
training at this level will fail to sufficiently stress the system. These adaptations will not
take place if the load or resistance is either too big or too small. Too little resistance and
the body won’t adapt, too much resistance and the person will fatigue or possibly incur an
injury. This applies to aerobic fitness/activities, strength training and flexibility.
Specificity
Implies that the effects of a training program will be specifically related to the manner in
which the program is conducted. The principle implies the greatest gains will be made
when the activity in training programs resemble the movements in games and the activity.
This is because the body adapts to stresses in a very specific was. Important when
considering the development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of
fitness.
Metabolic Specificity: energy systems used in the activity should be developed through
training.
The effects of a training program are directly related to the nature of training performed.
Specificity applies to all training components such as energy systems, muscle groups,
muscle fibres and movement patterns.
E.g. Aerobic marathon runner needs to target aerobic fitness
Strength: increased leg power to improve ones ability to sprint, the training program must
correctly address the speed, no. of repetitions, load and time between sets.
Reversibility
This implies that fitness gained can be lost just as quickly if fitness increased with
activity and decreases with inactivity. The longer the build up of fitness, the slower the
decline will be.
Variety (cross training)
Using the same drills and routines will not be productive as repetition without
creativity leads to boredom. Mental well being is vital to maximize effort in physical
training, cross training increases interest and motivation.
Aerobic: swimming, running, cycling. Circuit
Strength: Isometric, isotonic, Isokinetic
Flexibility: static, dynamic
Also leads to improvements in fitness
Training Thresholds-the levels of intensity that can improve our physical conditions
Aerobic Threshold: level of exercise intensity which is sufficient to cause a training
effect. This a approximately 70% of a persons max heart rate
Aerobic training Zone: a level of intensity which causes the heart rate to be high
enough o cause significant training gains
Anaerobic Threshold: a level of intensity in physical activity where the
accumulation of lactic acid increases very quickly in the blood.
Warm Up:
 Reduce the risk of injury by increasing
 Joint mobility (flexibility)
 Increase heart rate and body temperature
 Mental preparation
Warm up should consist of:
1.
General Body warm up e.g. jogging
2.
Specific flexibility exercises (shouldn’t stretch cold muscles,
flexibility >by 20% when warm)
3.
Calisthenics-sit ups and push ups
4.
Skill rehearsal
Cool Down:
 Minimise muscle stiffness and soreness
 Help disperse lactic acid
 Prevent blood pooling
Cool Down should consist of low intensity aerobic work and some stretching
3. Types of Training
1. Aerobic Training: uses the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply
and includes training types such as: Continuous, Interval, Fartlek, Circuit training,
Aerobics

Aerobics- exercise performed to music combining strength, flexibility and
cardio-respiratory fitness. It consists of a warm up, an extensive conditioning
phase within the training zone for 20-30 mins and a cool down phase. Used to
provide variety.

Circuit Training- minimal aerobic capacity increase but significant increases
in muscular endurance, strength and flexibility. Improves general conditioning
by moving from activity to the next after completing required reps or in a
certain time. Progressive overload is required to benefit such as increases
stations, repetitions, time taken etc.

Continuous- training without rest intervals,
- Heart rate must be above the aerobic threshold and remain there for
duration
- E.g. jogging, cycling, swimming
- Two types- long, slow distance training (general fitness) or high
intensity of moderate duration (athletes)

Fartlek- speed play, requires changes of speed in order to use aerobic and
anaerobic energy systems. Continuous training with frequent bursts of speed
every 2-3mins therefore training anaerobic and wee. Good for football, soccer,
netball basketball etc which require an interchange of energy systems.

Interval- involves alternating sessions of work and recovery. The player
executes a given amount of work in a particular time and is then allowed a
recovery period before the task is repeated many times. Players work hard but
avoid fatigue.
(Note higher intensity needs less duration)
2. Strength Training
Strength is the ability of a muscle of group of muscles to exert a force against a
resistance. Strength (resistance) programs can be divided into 3 categories.
2. Strength Training
Guidelines for Effective Resistance Training Program
Purpose
Strength
Power
Lean Body Mass
Muscular
Endurance
Weight
Resistance
Very Heavy
80-100% RM
Medium
60-80% RM
Heavy
70-90% RM
light
40-60% RM
Repetitions
26
Sets
36
Exercise
Speed
slow
2 10
36
fast
6 12
3 10
slow-medium
15 30
36
medium
Time Between
sets
Long
35
Long
35
Short
13
Short
13
RM= repetition mass=the maximum a person can lift a specific number of times eg 80%
RM =80% of the maximum weight that can only be lifted once
Purpose
Absolute+Relative
Strength
Weight
Resistance
Very Heavy
80-100%
Speed Strength
(power)
Strength
Endurance
Lean Body Mass



Repetitions
16
Sets
35
Exercise
Speed
slow -med
Time Between sets
up to 2mins
Sessions per wk
3-4 days per wk
Heavy
60-80%
2 10
36
fast
2-4mins
3-4 days per wk
Light-medium
40-60%
Medium-Heavy
70-90%
15 or >
36
medium
minimal
3-4 days per wk
6 15
3 10
slow-med
up to 2mins
3-6 days per wk
ATP is made in mitochondria of muscle cells
First release of energy comes from ATP splitting (high energy bonds)
Lactic Acid system can last up to 30mins at low intensity above anaerobic
threshold
1. Isotonic:
The muscle length changes by lifting a constant resistance through a full range of
motion. E.g. bicep curl. There are 2 types of isotonic contractions:
a. Concentric: muscle length shortens
b. Eccentric: downward, weight bearing and controlled, lengthening of
muscles
Muscles work in pairs-that is the agonist shortens in concentric contraction whilst
antagonist lengthens
2. Isometric:
Muscles develop tension but don’t change length. Isometric exercises will produce
gains specific to the joint angle held
3. Isokinetic:
This involves the use of elaborate machines-cybex. An Isokinetic machine
automatically adjusts its resistance according to the force applied to it/exerted against
it. Most useful for speed strength as if the movement was made as fast as possible the
force will be maximal for the full range of movement-ideal for sprinting.
These programs are useful for increasing muscle power, base of strength, increase muscle
hypertrophy (size), rehabilitation, recovery from injury, increase muscle endurance,
prevent injury. Strength gains will only be made if programs are exercise specific and
apply the progressive overload principle.
There are 4 types of strength
1. Endurance: ability of a muscle to repeat muscle contraction. Push ups, rowing, sit
ups for extended amounts of time
2. Power: (speed strength) ability to apply force at a rapid rate. E.g. jumping,
throwing
3. Absolute: maximum strength generated by a muscle. E.g. lifting the maximum
weight possible, squeezing a hand dynamometer
4. Relative: maximum strength generated by a muscle relative to body mass. I.e.
80kg and 70kg person lift 100kg each. The 70kg person has higher relative
strength.
Training Program Comparison
100m Sprinter
 ATP-PC system
 Power
 Short recovery
 High intensity, interval
 Heavy power 60-80% of max
 Fast 3-6reps
 Warm up crucial
 Anaerobic threshold
3. Flexibility Training
Endurance Road Cyclist
 Aerobic system
 Endurance
 Longer recovery
 Continuous-aerobic
threshold,
just above high end training zone
 Lactic acid system training
 Resistance-low weight
 High rep- >12-15, 40-60%
weights
 Warm up not so crucial
 Aerobic threshold
Flexibility is an important but often overlooked component of training. It is affected by
age, gender, temperature and is greatly reduced after the age of 25. Muscles not only
require strength they require length. Flexibility programs help prevent injuries, reduce
muscle soreness and tightness following exercise, improve circulation, improve
coordination and increase ROM therefore maximizing performance potential.
Why Should I Stretch?
When you contract a muscle, the muscles on the other side of the limb (antagonists) need
to relax as they lengthen, if you are inflexible and your antagonists cannot fully relax they
will begin to slightly contract to avoid being pulled or strained. This slight muscle
contraction creates increased muscle resistance that your working muscles must
overcome. This makes you more inefficient in regards to power output and energy
consumption. When you multiply this inefficiency over a repeated exercise such as
swimming, cycling and running, even over a shirt distance this becomes a significant
performance barrier.
 Increase your ROM (Range of Motion)
Range of motion is how far you can move your limbs around a joint. To correctly
perform an event/action at high speed requires a good ROM.
 1. Prevent Injuries
Supple and adequately warm muscles are less likely to incur an injury, it is the
antagonists that will suffer the strain otherwise i.e. hamstring when running
 2. Improve Coordination
Receptors located in muscles indicate where your limbs are in space and also contract the
muscle when it becomes too stretched (to prevent injury). Increasing flexibility improves
the threshold levels of these receptors so that they delay their reaction. Therefore you can
contract your muscles harder, stretch them further and improve coordination before
muscle receptors will interfere.
 3. Improve Circulation
Stretching warms muscles and increases blood flow thus improving circulation. As blood
carries oxygen and oxygen is necessary to repair injured tissue, this will promote injury
rehabilitation. Increased circulation from stretching will improve the rate of repair of
unnoticeable micro tears (from training) as well as detectable injuries. Improved
circulation will also promote the removal of waste products accumulated by training in
the body such as lactic acid. This becomes an important factor when recovering between
training sessions.
Stretching also warms muscles and prepares them for activity. It will also create a slight
rise in the body’s core temperature which also prepares the body for activity. There is a
point at which increased flexibility gains will not result in improved performance
therefore you should aim to ensure your ROM in each activity is sufficient to easily
perform the motion correctly and you are flexible enough to prevent any antagonistic
resistance during contractions.
When do I Stretch?
 For greatest flexibility gains: stretch after you have finished training and
incorporate it as part if your training session. This is the time to improve your
flexibility while your muscles are very warm and slightly fatigued. Stretching at
the end of a training session will also remove waste products from your system.
 Stretching prior to a training session: beneficial in preparing your muscles for
the upcoming activity, but not the time to test flexibility. Actually an optimal
warm up would involve light exercise for 10mins then stretching.
 Whenever Possible: is a good time to stretch (in the car, watching TV, before bed
etc) this promotes circulation and aids recovery. Be careful not to overstretch
How do I stretch?

Ballistic (Dynamic) Stretching: involves bouncing where the muscle is taken to
its end of range of motion, then overstretched by bouncing. This causes
intramuscular damage (torn muscles) as a result of the ‘stretch reflex’. Ballistic
stretching used not to be recommended due to its possible cause of injury
however research has shown there is value from ballistic stretching if done with
control and safely.

Static Stretching: most common form of stretching which involves gradually
moving the muscle into a position where you feel it begin to stretch and holding
that position for a period of time (10-30secs). To get the full benefit from static
stretching you should hold the position for a minimum of 8secs. Used for
rehabilitation of injury as well as the warm up and cool down phases of training.

Dynamic Stretching: suitable for speed and power sports which involves
performing the activity while gradually increasing the ROM after you have
commenced some light activity and completed a routine of static stretches.
Dynamic stretching mimics the activity you are about to perform so it is very
specific and also places the muscles under a similar load to the activity which
static stretching doesn’t. E.g. run throughs, gradually increasing pace so you are
fully warmed up, swim bands prior to swimming and gradually increasing the
force applied

Proprioceptor Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): designed to improve ROM
and flexibility, muscles need to be adequately warmed first. PNF also requires
another person. You begin by your partner stretching your muscles while you
relax, your partner then holds your muscle in this position and you try to push
against it as hard as possible for 3-5 seconds. After this your partner pushes your
leg back again and it should go back further than the previous attempt.
Static stretch followed by an isometric contraction then stretched statically again and
usually involves the use of a partner. It is used in rehabilitation programs because
isometric contractions strengthen the muscle fibres during the stretching process.
-
Determine muscle group
While in stretch position, person isometrically contracts muscle (push
against resistance) and holds for 10secs
- Relaxes in lengthened position for 5secs
- Further static stretch applied followed by isometric contraction
Based on two principles: 1. muscle relaxes more fully after it has undergone a maximum
isometric contraction implying it can be stretched further and resistance to stretching is
reduced
2. A muscle becomes stronger if its antagonist is isometrically contracted
immediately beforehand-good for rehabilitation. PNF will increase ROM 3 times
faster than static or ballistic.
Stretch Reflex:
When the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle. The muscle spindle records the
change in length (and how fast) and sends signals to the spine which convey this
information. This triggers the stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) which attempts to resist the
change in muscle length by causing the stretched muscle to contract. The more sudden
the change in muscle length, the stronger the muscle contractions will be. This basic
function of the muscle spindle helps to maintain muscle tone and protects the body part
form injury.
One of the main reasons for holding a stretch for a prolonged period of time is that as you
hold the muscle in a stretched position, the muscle spindle becomes accustomed to the
new length and reduces signaling. Gradually, you can train your stretch receptors to allow
greater lengthening of the muscles.
Some sources suggest that with extensive training, the stretch reflex of certain muscles
can be controlled so that there is little or no reflex contraction in response to a sudden
stretch. While this type of control provides the opportunity for the greatest gains in
flexibility to be made it also provides the greatest risk of injury if used improperly. Only
consummate professional athletes and dancers at the top of their sport are believed to
actually possess this level of muscular control.
NEED TO COMPLETE AND CHECK FROM HERE ON
How Does the Body Respond to Aerobic Training?
The basis of aerobic Training
-Prescreening
The purpose of prescreening is to determine the current health status of the individual
before starting physical activity. For individuals who are younger and in a healthy state,
pre screening can be useful for comparisons further into the training cycle. Screening can
also assist in identifying medical conditions and existing injuries that may be aggravated
through training
For people leading a sedentary lifestyle or having medical problems, screening can assist
direction as to the amount and intensity of training to be undertaken without
compromising the individual’s health.
-Application of FITT Principle
Frequency- how often we train, how many days a week. People looking to improve
general aerobic level of fitness must be 3-4 times per, athletes up to 6-7 times per week
and to loose weight needs to be every day.
Intensity- how hard in terms of heart rate the athlete is working. 60-80% of max heart
rate is within the training zone
Time- how long we are exercising for, 20-30mins is good.
Time to produce a training effect
Type- sustained and of moderate intensity to improve cardio respiratory endurance.
Activities should focus on large muscle groups such as arms and legs like swimming,
cycling, jogging, rowing, shadow boxing.
Immediate Physiological Response to Training
FIND SYDNEY UNI SHEETS TO SUPPLEMENT THIS
1.
Heart Rate: increases with exercise. Steady state is a period of time
during which oxygen uptake remains at a uniform level such as swimming
at a constant speed. An unfit person’s heart rate will keep increasing and
not achieve a steady state. When exercising stops heart rate will decrease
rapidly but the fitter you are the quicker you recover.
2.
Stroke Volume: amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during one
contraction (mL/beat). Stroke volume increases during exercise, mostly
when progressing from rest to moderate exercise. There is a large
difference between a fit and an unfit person’s stroke volume. Stroke
volume increases with training by up to 20%
3.
Cardiac Output: amount of blood pumped by the heart in a minute, this
increases with exercise. Cardiac Output= SV x HR. An athlete might have
100ml per beat and 60beats a min giving them a cardiac output of 6L per
min. Untrained people can increase cardiac output from 20-22L per min
during exercise. Trained athletes can increase up to 35-40 L per min
achieved at a lower max heart rate and are able to perform more work at a
higher intensity.
4.
5.
Lactate Levels: this increases with intensity of exercise but is broken
down in the presence of oxygen. The untrained person reaches the lactate
threshold earlier and has less tolerance to increases in lactic acid levels
Ventilation Rate: increases with exercise if working sub maximally it
will plateau (level off)
Physiological Adaptations in Response to Aerobic Training
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Resting Heart Rate: reduces with increased fitness as heart becomes
stronger and more efficient. Normal 70, trained <40 beats per min.
Stroke Volume: cardiac output and stroke volume can increase with
training. Stroke volume for a trained athlete can increase up to 20%;
cardiac output can increase up to 40L per min while exercising. Increases
in cardiac output of a trained athlete are due to the huge increase in stroke
volume.
Oxygen Uptake (VO2 max, aerobic power): increases with training.
Trained athletes =75ml/kg/min while untrained =35ml/kg/min therefore
trained athletes can use more oxygen per kilogram of weight and therefore
have a higher level of work capacity
Lung Capacity: the amount of air that the lungs can hold 600ml for adult
male
Hemoglobin Level: Haemoglobin-the substance that binds to oxygen
transports it around the body. Haemoglobin level increases allowing more
O2 enriched blood from lungs to muscles. Training at high altitudes
increases hemoglobin levels and endurance levels can increase by up to
20%.
Blood Pressure: is the pressure that the blood exerts against the inner
walls of the blood vessels.
How can Psychology Affect Performance?
Motivation- The drive towards the goal. It keeps us strivi9ng for success. It can be either
1. Positive: can be rewards, recognition or praise for good performance
2. Negative: feedback for unacceptable behavior causing athletes to avoid this
behavior out of fear of consequences e.g. being dropped from a team
Sources of Motivation
1. Intrinsic: comes from within, a feeling of satisfaction when achieving a goal and
is important for continued interest
2. Extrinsic: are external such as rewards- trophy, money, and praise from the
coach. Extrinsic motivation provides focus as well as rewards.
Responsibility for motivation is shared between coach, athlete, media, peers, team
members but sustained motivation relies on more internal factors than external. Athletes
participate more as a result of internal motivation than other factors e.g. self satisfaction
and also to be competent at a task (task orientation).
Reinforcement: a form of reward or punishment/threat that influences the probability
that an action or behavior will reoccur
Social Reinforcement stems from coaches, players, peers and parents who influence the
athletes. It arises from social contact and develops in an atmosphere of interaction,
teamwork and cooperation. Different forms of reinforcement cause changes in behavior:
Positive: someone the athlete admires or respects congratulating them
Negative: Exclusion for poor performance and criticism
Material: conferred in the form of tangible item’s such as badges and medallions
(positive) or been fined, personal errors on match statistics sheet (negative)
Internal: not visible like social or material reinforcement, often called covert or disguised
reinforcement. Positive- a player can feel proud/sense of achievement which encourages
repetition of behavior, can also be learnt through observation where an individual learns
through someone else’s success and nurtures the experience to their own benefit
Negative-not satisfied with personal achievement, not achieving to level hoped for.
Anxiety
This is a psychological process characterized by fear or apprehension in anticipation of
confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening. It is a complex emotion
identified by various levels of agitation. Arousal refers to the level of anxiety before and
during a performance. The performance will be best when the level of arousal is optimal.
Sources:
 Stepping outside comfort zone
 Break up of relationship
 Change in playing conditions
 Making a big decision that could affect others
The non specific responses of the body to a demand placed on it. It can come from a
number of places e.g. parents, media or from within e.g. how you cope with a certain
situation/problem.
It is characterized by:
 Increased blood supply to muscles
 Increased ventilation rate
 Increased glucose production,
 Increased sweat, production and
 Release of stimulant hormone adrenaline
 Tightened muscles to prepare the body for action can be internal (thinking and
feeling) or external pressure (crowd or opponents)
Athletes can use strategies such as:
 Mental imagery
 Relaxation
 Developing concentration by focusing on the immediate task rather than on the
perceived reaction to it
 Developing confidence

Planning strategies to cope with a situation
State Anxiety
State anxiety is more specific. It refers to a heightened presence of distress in response to
a particular situation
Trait Anxiety
Trait Anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual.
Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond
to and manage stress.
Optimum arousal:
Arousal equals the emotional, mental and physiological activation required to produce a
response. It’s the drive, readiness, excitedness required for optimal performance. One
theory is the ‘’ (inverted U) hypothesis which suggests there is an optimum level.
However too little or too much leads to a decline in performance. Optimum level of
arousal varies from skill to skill. In difficult tasks involving few muscle groups e.g.
putting in golf or archery level of arousal need not be high to be optimum. Easier skills
involving large body movements e.g. running or weight lifting need increased level of
arousal for performance to be optimal.
Managing Anxiety
1.
Concentration/Attention Skills:
Concentration is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that
the individual can focus on doing rather than on thinking about doing. It is the
ability to attend to appropriate stimuli in competition. E.g. a netballer focuses
on the process of a shot one hand, bend knees, follow through etc rather on the
players defending her, crowd, whether it is successful or not as these are
known as irrelevant cues.
2.
Mental Rehearsal
The technique of mentally picturing the performance or skill before executing
it and is also known as mental imagery. It is helpful to enhance competition
performance but also the acquisition and building of motor skills. Used in
weight lifting, gymnastics and high jump. Examples involve mental repetition
in increase familiarity with desired motion.
Effective in:
 Improving concentration and focus
 Narrowing thoughts to the task
 Elevates to desired level of arousal
 Increases confidence
 Increases motivation
3.
Visualisation
Involves all the skills in mental rehearsal: picturing a specific aspect of the
performance ensuring the image is correct example-contact phase in a golf
swing
4.
Relaxation
Series of techniques that seek to control the body’s response to stress/arousal.
Techniques include:
 Mental imagery
 Progressive muscular relaxation
 Self hypnosis
 Meditation
 Centered breathing
5.
Goal Setting
These are the targets which we aspire to achieve. They can relate to either
performance or behavior.
Goals are: (SMART)
 Specific
 Measurable (quantify)
 Action oriented (performance/behavior goals)
 Realistic achievable and within athletes capability
 Timely within a certain time frame (short or long)
How Can Nutrition Affect Performance?
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet needs: a balanced intake of nutrients to ensure the growth, repair,
maintenance and functioning of tissues. Balance in terms of energy requirement to
guarantee fuel demands matches energy intake
Macronutrients:
 Protein
 Carbohydrates
 fat
Are the major nutrients which supply energy and are essential for growth and
development.
Micronutrients
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Water
Are essential body nutrients but do not supply energy
Carbohydrates
 Ideal fuel for activity
 Complex-cereals, wholegrain, fruit and vegetables
 Simple- cakes, sweets, biscuits
 Should be predominant energy source
 Muscle and liver glycogen is synthesized directly from carbohydrates
 Only source of fuel used during anaerobic Glycolosis (short, high intensity)
 Brain and nervous system rely on carbohydrates exclusively as they are unable to
use either protein or fat
 Muscle glycogen stores take 24 hrs to restore
 Glycogen sparing-the metabolism of fat instead of carbohydrates during
endurance work even though the body has sufficient energy stores of
carbohydrates
 Glycogen-storage form of carbohydrates found in muscles and liver
Fat






Important for low intensity, long duration
Becomes fuel supplier as glycogen reserves become depleted
Dense in energy however needs more oxygen for metabolism and ensuing energy
production. Results in increased respiration, increased body temperature and
increased need for fluid
Endurance athletes have no need for extra fat
Unsaturated fats are best, found in vegetable and fish oil
Excess fat, carbohydrates and protein is stored in fat cells
Protein
 Important for structural role in holding the cells together and in growth as well as
repair and maintenance of body tissue
 Used as energy source under extreme conditions
 Athletes need 1mg of protein for every kilogram of body weight
Water
 Second to oxygen as an essential life providing element
 Body stores water both within the cells (intracellular) and outside the cells (extra
cellular)
 Doesn’t provide energy
 Losses higher than 15% can be fatal
Supplementation: the process used by athletes who cannot derive sufficient nutrient
intake from their food consumption to meet their needs. This can be valuable where a
genuine process like carbohydrate loading is used. However in many cases normal
dietary intake is in fact sufficient and athletes using supplements are then taking in
unnecessarily high amounts of certain nutrients.
Vitamins and minerals: include a range of inorganic substances that enable normal body
functions to be maintained. They are present on many foods, particularly in fruits and
vegetables as well as meat.
Among those most likely to require some supplementation are vegetarians (iron, protein),
female endurance athletes (iron) and non dairy consumers (calcium). Where excessive
amounts if vitamins and minerals are consumed through supplementation, the effects
range from insignificant such as being excreted harmlessly through urine, through to
more significant concerns such as muscle and joint pain, headaches and feelings of
constant.
Carbohydrate Loading: is a process that seeks to maximize the amount of glycogen
stored in the muscles and liver, for use during aerobic performance. There are variations
in the process for athletes to consider.
Stage
Timing
1
Days 1-3
2
Days 4-6
Competition
Day 7
Purpose
Glycogen
depletion
glycogen
repletion
Above normal
levels
Increased
availability
of stored
glycogen
for longer
Strategies
High intensity exercise
low car intake
Little or no exercise
high carb intake
higher intensities of exercise
can be achieved and
maintained
Hydration
Principles of body temperature regulation
The ideal core temperature is app 37C which is maintained through the process of
thermoregulation which is controlled by the hypothalamus. Thermoregulation ensures
that a balance is maintained between heat loss and heat gain.
Heat occurs through the normal metabolic processes and from muscular contractions.
Heat loss occurs through:
- Radiation: the loss of heat from the body to the cooler external environment via
infra red rays
- Evaporation: the loss of heat from the body when sweat is converted into vapor
and leaves the skin
- Convection: the transfer of heat through moving currents of air
- Conduction: the transfer of heat through contact with other objects
The process of Thermoregulation is assisted in its function by body responses such as
- Vasodilation: where blood vessels expand to allow blood to circulate closer to
the surface of the skin so it can be cooled and heat lost more easily
- Vasoconstriction: where blood vessels become smaller to maintain blood flow
closer to the warmth of the body core and vital organs
- Involuntary muscle contractions: such as shivering to generate heat
Controlling heat loss and heat gain is important. Heat gain is generally more common in
physical activity due to muscular contractions however heat loss can be a factor in cold
climates such as skiing and surfing. The presence of wind in an already cold area will
drastically increase the risk of hypothermia. (Low=hypothermia). Acclimatisation may
have a benefit here.
Guidelines for Fluid Replacement
Fluid replacement is essential in order to avoid debilitating effects on performance caused
by dehydration and hyperthermia. Effective fluid replacement is achieved by increasing
intake before, during and after performance.
Before: at least 245 hrs prior to performance fluid intake should be increased. In 2 hours
prior to performance, 500ml should be consumed app 200-300 should be consumed
15mins prior to game.
During: small, frequent drinks should be consumed enough to replace the water lost
through sweating. 200-300 ml every 15-20mins
After: app 200-300ml for every 15-20 mins of exercise.
The possibility of hyperthermia and dehydration is greater on hot and humid days. High
humidity reduced the effectiveness of evaporation as a means of heat loss, as such fluid
replacement needs are greater at these times.
Water is recommended for consumption during sporting performances however sports
drinks have been shown to be beneficial if they contain:
- 4-8% carbohydrate can aid in absorption of water
- 0.5-0.7 gm per litre sodium may help replace electrolytes lost during sport
How does the acquisition of Skill Affect Performance?
Training programs are essential to performance improvement. Effective programs focus
on skill acquisition and development, together with physiological improvement but
usually are supported by physiological strategies and by psychological strategies and
nutritional plans. How skills are learned, tested and assessed is critical to performance
improvement
The learning Process
Developing muscle memory is not a simple process, but it involves visualizing the
movement, understanding the nature of the components, and then applying what is
known.
Learning to perform a physical skill such as throwing a softball requires the use of four
important mechanisms; perceiving, deciding, acting and feedback. They occur in
sequence-the end result being performance of the skill. While the skill can be performed
without the need for feedback, it is most important in the refinement process which
underpins skill improvement. Repetition of the skill in a cyclic process leads to the
gradual improvement in the execution of the movement.
Perceiving: often referred to as ‘input’, perception comes in the form of information
called cues. Data arrives at the brain via the senses, mainly sight, sound and tough.
Messages travel rapidly to the brain which transcribes the data into a visual blueprint. In
this manner, the person develops the idea or perception of what needs to be done. In
short, perception refers to the ability to conceptualise or see the important parts of a
movement or strategy.
Deciding: With the information stored in brain memory, the learner then decides how to
use it. This is called processing. The brain interprets and codes the details so they can be
used to work out how to convert the cues into an appropriate physical response
Acting: once a decision has been made, the neuromuscular system (specifically the
sensory and effector muscles) guides the person in making the desired movement. The
action is called output. In this way the person executes a conceptualised plan in the form
of a motor movement.
Feedback: is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their
performance.
Characteristics of the Learner
a) Heredity: Muscle fibre composition, somatre type (body shape), gender (males
are stronger, less flexible etc), conceptual ability
b) Confidence: Helps improvements in skills, success develops confidence
c) Prior Experience: (transfer of learning) learning of similar skills accelerates
learning of new skills e.g. basketball/netball, hockey/golf
d) Ability: the way in which the individual is able to learn, process and implement
new skills
e) Personality e.g. consistency, reliability, level of motivation and ability to express
feelings, positive learning attributes e.g. determination, the want to listen and
learn
The Learning Environment: refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the
skill itself, the situation in which practiced, information from coaches and even the
influence of the surrounding weather conditions. The environment can have a positive or
negative impact on the learning experience.
a) Physical Environment: this is external to the athlete e.g. crowd, weather, state of
playing area, opposition and officials. When learning new skills the environment
should be stable and as controlled as possible then developed into game like
situations e.g. kicking a soccer ball then adding competitors
b) Nature of Skill: Skills can be classified according to:
I. Stability of the environment
a. Open: take place in unpredictable circumstances such as surfing, tackle in
rugby, goalkeeper save in hockey.–open or closed skill
b. Closed: where circumstances are predictable and consistent such as a tee shot in
golf, free throw in basketball
II. The precisions of the movement
a. Fine: movements that involve only small muscle groups such as finger releases
in archery
b. Gross: movements that involve large muscle groups such as swimming, running
and throwing
III. The distinctiveness of the beginning and the end of the skill
a. Discreet: have clearly defined beginning and end and tend to be of short
duration such as a golf shot or tennis serve
b. Continuous: have no clear beginning or end and tend to be of an ongoing
natures such as swimming, jogging or rowing
c. Serial Skills: the combination of a number of smaller almost discrete skills into
a whole skill such as gymnastics routine comprising round off, back handspring
and back somersault performed consecutively
IV. Timing- externally or self paced
c) Practice Method:
1.
Massed: long practice sessions broken up periodically by shorter
periods. Suitable for highly motivated athletes.
2.
Distributed: allows longer periods of time between shorter practice
sessions.
3.
Whole: involves the learner learning the skill as a complete
movement. Some skills need to be taught as a whole but also useful for
people who already have a high skill level or who learn skills quickly.
4.
Part: involves learning a skill in different parts. It involves breaking
the skill up into sub routines and learning each part individually before
putting it all together as a whole.
5.
Speed: attempts to learn skill at desired speed. Discus and shot put,
some gymnastics are hard to learn slowly
6.
Accuracy: focuses on performing the skill with completely accurate
movements regardless of speed. With new skills should be taught and
speed added later.
d) Feedback
1.
Internal
2.
External
3.
4.
5.
Concurrent (during)
Delayed (after performance)
Knowledge of Results: (feedback that provides information about the
outcome of a movement.)
Knowledge of Performance: (provides information about the patterns
of movement in a performance). Can be concurrent or delayed, internal
(kinesthetic sense) or external. Elite performers can use kinaesthetic
sense to adjust movements appropriately so that the final result is
unaffected.
6.
Stages of Skill Acquisition
Cognitive Stage:
This is the first stage of learning. It is here where the athlete develops an understanding
of the task. Demonstrations, videos are very important however coaches should be careful
to avoid information overload. During this stage hopefully the learner will experience
some success however frequent large errors do occur.
-
Focus on what to do
Frequent large errors
Learner is often unable to
recognise errors
Learner needs to see, feel and
experience the movement
An exploratory stage
Demonstration is the best
means of communication
-
Learners
must
identify
subroutines
Slow learning speed and
inefficient movement
Support fro teaching aids are
required
to
enhance
visualization of the skill. The
teaching
focus
is
on
conceptualisation
Associative Stage:
This stage is commonly referred to as the practice stage. In this stage emphasis is on
practice and the correct sequencing of movement skills. Skills become more refined and
fewer errors are made. Kinaesthetic sense starts to be developed (feel of the movement)
in this stage.
-
Identified as the intermediate
or practice stage of learning
Focus on how to do the skill
Some errors but not so large
Learner needs to practice
Kinaesthetic
sense
is
improved through practice
Demonstrations are important
-
-
Emphasis is on temporal
patterning. The player will
know the subroutines and is
competent in assembling
them into the required skill
Moderate
speed
and
reasonably
efficient
movement
-
Further improvement requires
practice of set patterns of
movements in controlled
situations
-
Some athletes never progress
past this stage.
Autonomous Stage:
Movement and skills are produced automatically. Athlete’s performance is consistent and
has few errors. Athletes are able to focus on tactics, strategies and reading the game.
They can detect and correct errors and have well developed kinaesthetic sense.
Visualization is more effective for autonomous athletes.
- Identified as the advanced
- Demonstrations are only
stage at which skills are
essential to refine particular
performed reflexively
movements
- Focus on other tasks
- Temporal and sequential
- Few errors
patterning subroutines is
- Performer is able to detect
automatic
and correct as they occur
- Speed and efficiency that
- Performer needs to adapt to
relate
to
the
specific
the movement to pressure
requirement of the situations
situations
- Improvement
requires
- Movements rehearsed under
manipulation
of
the
varying conditions
environment to ensure the
skill is able to be reproduced
under varying condition
,Rates of Skill Acquisition
Learning Curves and Plateaus
Implications of rate of learning
People learn at different rates and they will ultimately attain varying standards. By
placing results on a graph, learning rates can be more easily seen and conclusions drawn
about relevant factors. Factors that will impact on the rate of learning:
- Nature of the task
- Characteristics of the learner
- The quality of instruction given
- Practice opportunities
- The merit of the feedback received and its capacity to be used effectively by the
learner
It is often assumed that the people who learn skills quickly, or those who display a high
level of performance earlier, will reach the autonomous stage quicker or ultimately
achieve much higher levels of performance. This can be true in many cases but not
always. Some of the factors listed above may impact on the rate of learning but not
necessarily on the level ultimately achieved. Additionally it is possible that early good
performances may be achieved with a technique that will ultimately have limitations. The
learner who makes the effort to perform the movement correctly, despite early difficulties
may benefit in the long run.
Skilled Performers versus Unskilled
a) Kinaesthetic Sense: an awareness of muscular effort and body positioning during
movement. Inexperienced performers make mistakes because their muscle
memory is not fully developed. Highly skilled performers are alert to movement
error and are able to make correction while executing the movement
b) Anticipation and Timing: The capacity to accurately predict what is likely to
occur and then respond appropriately in the required time. Skilled performers are
better able to predict what may happen in specific situations and also leads to
better timing of responses. Anticipation is important in externally paced sports
such as cricket, baseball and squash, timing firstly applies to skill acquisition. If
not timed well, execution appears jerky and uncontrolled. God timing allows
athletes to concentrate on other performance aspects such as their opponent and
when to hit the ball. Timing secondly applies to the performer being in the right
place at the right time or being in the optimum position for skill execution.
c) Mental Approach: Refers to an athlete’s state of mind being conducive to
achieving peak performance.
Skilled performers can:
- Recognise and respond to only relevant cues called selective attention
where they block out irrelevant aspects of the situation.
- Respond to multiple cues such as changes in the environment and attend to
tactics simultaneously
- Realise the importance of optimal arousal and us well developed
techniques for its generation and control
-
Establish goals and feel a desire to achieve them
Use benefits of experience to advantage
d) Consistency: the capacity to perform at a high standard on a regular basis
Objective Measurement of Skill
a) Skill Related tests:
Measurement is a process of using numeric information to assess and compare skills and
performances e.g. times and distances. The greater the accuracy of the tests, the more
reliable the data and the higher degree of objectivity. Where measurement is not part of
the assessment of performance it tends to be subjective and less accurate. Subjective
refers to a judgment of performance based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather
than a measurement system. Objectivity is the extent to which a measure or test is
independent of the observer. Objectivity runs on a continuum from highly objective to
slightly objective. High jump or javelin are highly objective while judo and fencing
require interpretation of special rules.
Observations can be made more objective by using
- Check lists: style, technical correctness, execution
- Measurement systems: instruments take times, tapes
- Established Judging Criteria: a set of procedures, rules or guidelines
- Rating Scales: degree of difficulty, marks for technique
- Using judges with no personal or competitive affiliations with any competitors
- Disregarding the highest and lowest scores for each performance from the
judging panel and averaging the rest of the scores
b) Validity and Reliability of Tests:
When measuring a skill it is essential it is both valid and reliable. Validity ensures the
relevance of the information being received from the test, while reliability ensures that
the results are accurate or consistent with what the performer actually achieved. A good
example is the vertical jump test. When the vertical jump test is used to measure leg
power it is a valid test. When the person administering the test correctly follows the
protocol it is a reliable test.
Validity: is the honesty of a test i.e. the degree to which it measures what it is supposed
to measure
Reliability: the degree of consistency of a test i.e. the ability to measure the same
attributes of the same individual or group under the same conditions.
Judging the Quality of Performance
a) Characteristics of a skilled performance
- Anticipate responses and react to them quickly
- Coordinate movements, giving the impression of fluency
- Control of movement
- Focus on tactics and strategies rather than on how skills are performed
- Gain the desired outcome from demonstrated movements
- Reveal resourcefulness in having a range of options in any particular
movement
- Executes skill with ease, using speed and efficiency
b) Outcomes of a skilled performance
- Financial remuneration such as sponsorship
- Increased motivation and desire to improve
- Transfer of learning to other sports or skills
- Able to analyse and critically evaluate your performance and other
peoples performances, extra responsibility
- Self confidence and esteem improved
- Improved standards of performance
- Increased media profile
- Increased extrinsic rewards
- Restricted lifestyle or behavior because of potential impact on performance
- Increased pressure (stress) to repeat or exceed current levels of performance
- Personal satisfaction and enjoyment
- Derive respect from others
c) Personal versus prescribed judging criteria
- Personal Criteria: are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual
brings to judge performance
- Prescribed Criteria: are the established by a sports organisation or body, and
form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity.