Download AJS_Paper2_BiologicalWarfare

Biological Warfare: Building the Ideal
Bioweapon
Anna Slezak
Dr. Hubert Bray
Math 89s
1 November 2016
Slezak 2
Introduction
Biological warfare is the use of infectious, biological agents with the intent of harming
humans, plants, or animals as an act of war. While biological warfare is not very common,
there are many historical instances and could potentially be many more as society moves away
from conventional weapons. Biological weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction,
along with nuclear and chemical warfare tactics. Weapons of mass destruction vary from
conventional weapons in their potential to create chaos on a large, societal scale (Glick 26).
Biological violence can come in the forms of biowarfare, bioterrorism, and biocrime.
Biowarfare would only include the use of bioweapons by nations in an act of war. Bioterrorism
is use of these tactics by an individual or group other than a country. The effectiveness of a
bioterroristic attack is generated not by the sheer number of casualties, but by the public
disruption caused by the event. The 2001 Anthrax Terror is a great example of this, which I will
discuss later in this paper. Finally, biocrime is the use of biological weapons on a single person
or group, generally motivated by revenge or monetary gain (Jansen et al. 489).
History
Biological weapons have long been a tactic in warfare. However, analysis of historical
biological warfare can be a difficult task for many reasons. One reason is that adequate data is
not always available, especially data with accurate scientific detail. Also, the majority of early
recorded history is skewed by political propaganda, and that could have led to the tactical
inclusion or exclusion of key details. Additionally, accurate information may be available
through the government but military security measures prevent scientists and historians from
Slezak 3
studying this data. For these reasons, historical examples of biological warfare must be studied
cautiously.
The earliest suspected event of biological warfare was in the fourteenth century BC,
when the Hittites drove rams infected with tularemia into enemy lands (Barras & Greub 498).
This could have infected their animals which they rely on for food. It also likely infected people
and caused havoc among people of these enemy groups.
More notable examples of biological warfare can be found all throughout history.
According to Homer’s epic poems, The Iliad & The Odyssey, warriors dipped arrows and spears
in poison to infect enemy soldiers. During the Middle Ages, corpses of bubonic plague victims
were catapulted over castle walls to spread their disease to the people within. In the United
States, British military officers used the smallpox virus to infect Native Americans. After
offering blankets from smallpox hospital patients to the Native Americans, a British general
wrote in his journal, “’I hope it will have the desired effect’” (Barras & Greub 499).
Modern Biological Warfare
The modern era of biological warfare started at the end of the nineteenth century when
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch made theoretical advances in the field of microbiology. Pasteur
and Koch, along with their followers, were able to identify and control pathogens that cause
both human and animal diseases. They were even able to reproduce pathogens and, in some
cases, control the way they disseminate into a population (Buchholz & Collins 3751). These
advances created a theoretical understanding of microbiology in collective human knowledge
that allowed powerful advances in biological warfare as well.
Slezak 4
Today, most countries understand that the use of biological weapons is unethical,
similar to the thought process following nuclear warfare. In fact, the 1972 Biological and Toxic
Weapons Convention prohibited the use of such weapons. As of April 2013, 170 countries had
ratified the treaty outlawing the research or production of bioweapons (Jansen et al. 489). The
problem with this treaty is that it only applies to nations who have agreed to the treaty, not to
other states or non-state groups like the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) or other terroristic
organizations. These rogue operations pose the most real threat to western civilization in
terms of biological warfare at the moment.
The most notable example of modern biological warfare was the 2001 Anthrax Attacks,
which was a very effective instance of bioterrorism. One week after the 9/11 terrorist attack,
biologist Bruce Edwards Ivins sent envelopes of anthrax spores to various media offices and to
the offices of two Democratic Senators through the U.S. Postal Service. These spores killed five
people and injured another seventeen (Warrick 2). While the sheer number of casualties is not
very high, the disorder placed on society was substantial. Ivins was a scientist working for the
United States Department of Biodefense at Ford Detrick in Frederick, Maryland. This attack
came directly after the largest terrorist attack in modern history and further propelled
American’s general distrust of government. These powerful results came from a rather minute
attack, which exemplifies the true power of bioterrorism. Below are images of three of the
letters.
Slezak 5
http://www.veteransnewsnow.com/2014/02/16/were-israels-secret-services-behind-the-2001-anthrax-attacks/
The “Ideal” Bioweapon
In order to create an effective biological weapon, certain criteria must be met. While
these standards vary on the intended effect of the attack, simple characteristics about the
pathogen are consistent. It must be contagious and infectious, seriously debilitating to the
infected being, have few readily available cures, be easy to deliver to the intended population,
and unlikely to harm the attackers in the process (Alton).
The first criterion of an effective bioweapon is fairly straight forward. In order for a
pathogen to be infectious, the virus, bacterium, or microbe must enter the host and begin to
reproduce. A disease occurs when the pathogen causes damage to the host cells through
infection. The attack also must be contagious, meaning it is easily transferred between
organisms of the intended population (Nutton 3).
Slezak 6
Next, the attack must be legitimately harmful to those infected. A bioweapon is useless
if it causes no real harm to its victims. Generally, the effectiveness in this regard can be
measured in terms of death rate. However, in some situations, it would be more powerful for
the pathogen to debilitate infected individuals to the point where they require attention from
other members of the population. Either way, an attack must be fairly harmful to the intended
population to have a substantial impact.
Similarly, the disease caused by the bioweapon cannot have a readily-available
treatment. If an attack can be prevented, avoided, or cured, it is completely ineffective.
Currently, many potential pathogens for bioweapon usage would be useless because target
populations are immune due to vaccinations or have stockpiled treatments. However, many
viruses and bacteria are becoming increasingly immune to conventional treatments and could
be seriously harmful to infected groups in the near future.
Once a pathogen is created for a bioweapon, the next step is creating an efficient way to
deliver it to the target population. Since different pathogens cause infection in different ways,
delivery methods must be individualized for each weapon. Some bacteria, such as anthrax, can
be inhaled or ingested. Infecting an entire population by inhalation would require an enormous
cloud and therefore be unrealistic. Ingestion, however, would be possible. The assailant could
infect a large number of livestock with the bacterium and humans would contract the infection
by consuming the animals. Viral infections are generally more infectious so they can be
delivered solely by infecting a small number of individuals in the population. Basically, delivery
is a specialized process that must be done carefully and precisely.
Slezak 7
The final and potentially most important aspect of a biological weapon is that the
delivery of the pathogen is safe for the assailant. A bioweapon must be controlled in such a
way that it is easy to infect the target population but also safe to do so, which can be difficult.
Creating and transporting the pathogen could be incredibly dangerous and extreme cautions
must be taken.
Each of these steps is important in ensuring the safety and efficacy of a biological
weapon, but there are also other criteria that further improve these weapons. Using materials
that are inexpensive and easy to obtain makes the attack easier to carry out, especially if it is a
covert, non-state operation. The pathogen also must be hard to detect, so that the infection
can spread throughout the population before something can be done about it. Another oftenoverlooked aspect of a selected pathogen is name recognition. If a virus or bacterium sounds
scary, like anthrax or Ebola, public distress will accumulate even without an actual infection.
This tactic is especially employed in bioterrorism.
Ethics of biological warfare
Most modern, organized nations would agree that biological warfare is unethical and
should not be used for any reason. It has been said that “’Biological warfare events are widely
regarded as the absolute perversion of medical science’” (Barras & Greub 497). In fact, 170
states have agreed not to research or produce and biological weapons. The use of biological
warfare tactics are direct attacks on non-militant civilians. While there have been some points
in history where civilians were harmed by acts of war (Nazi concentration camps, atomic
bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, etc.), it is generally believed that attacking innocent
Slezak 8
civilians during war is cruel. Violence against civilians is also a violation of the Just War Theory,
which is an ancient doctrine of military ethics (Holmes 8).
Defense
While biological war is not a common concept in American society, it is something that
the government takes great care to prevent. The United States Department of Defense has
entire departments dedicated to biodefense. Their duties include disease surveillance,
identification of weapons, and planning responses to bioterroristic attacks (D’Agostino 7).
The government also funds the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which
has unique responsibilities from the Department of Defense. The CDC prevents serious
biological attacks through a variety of defenses. One such example is the requirement of
vaccinations in public schools. Each state has its own requirements, but all states require
vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, measles, and rubella ("State Vaccination
Requirements"). Although none of these diseases are very common in America, a tactical
infection by an enemy could cause an epidemic if citizens were not already immune. Our
government also frequently develops, tests, and stockpiles treatments for possible biological
attacks. Medical research facilities across the country run clinical trials on the safety and
efficacy of medications for the CDC’s Strategic National Stockpile. A true biological attack
would be incredibly dangerous for our country, but our government is doing everything it its
power to ensure our safety.
Slezak 9
Conclusion
Biological warfare is a tactic that has been used since the beginning of recorded history
and could be a serious threat in future. Since bioweapon usage by many countries is prohibited
by the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention, bioterrorism is the most imminent threat.
Despite ethical dilemmas, certain terroristic groups will stop at nothing to achieve their
purposes. We can predict how these weapons may be produced and create defenses against
them. Ultimately, bioweapons are incredibly dangerous and need to be taken seriously.
Slezak 10
Works Cited
Alton, Joe, M.D. "5 Characteristics of the Perfect Bio-Weapon." LewRockwell. LewRockwell, 17
Oct. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
Barras, V., and G. Greub. "History of Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism." Clinical Microbiology
and Infection 20.6 (2014): 497-502. CAB Abstracts. Web. 28 Oct. 2016.
Buchholz, Klaus, and John Collins. "The Roots-A Short History of Industrial Microbiology and
Biotechnology." Applied Microbiology & Biotechnology 97.9 (2013): 3747-3762.
Academic Search Alumni Edition. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
Casadevall, A. "The Future of Biological Warfare." Microbial Biotechnology 5.5 (2012): 584-587.
CAB Abstracts. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
Chess, C, and L Clarke. "Weapons of Mass Destruction. Facilitation of Risk Communication
During The Anthrax Attacks of 2001: The Organizational Backstory." American Journal of
Public Health 97.9 (2007): 1578-1583. CINAHL Complete. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
D'Agostino, Davi M. "Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Needs Consistent Policies and Clear
Processes to Address the Survivability of Weapon Systems Against Chemical and
Biological Threats: GAO-06-592." GAO Reports (2006): 1. Military & Government
Collection. Web. 1 Nov. 2016.
Decker, Raymond J. "Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Needs to Continue to Collect and
Provide Information On Tests and On Potentially Exposed Personnel: GAO-04-410."
(n.d.): 1-43. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
Slezak 11
Glick, Scott J. "Consequence, Weapons of Mass Destruction, And The Fourth Amendment's "NoWin" Scenario." Indiana Law Journal 90.1 (2015): 1-45. Index to Legal Periodicals &
Books Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 26 Oct. 2016.
Holmes, Robert L. "The Metaethics of Pacifism and Just War Theory." Philosophical Forum 46.1
(2015): 3-15. Philosophers Index with Full Text. Web. 26 Oct. 2016.
Ilchmann, Kai, and James Revill. "Chemical and Biological Weapons in The 'New Wars'." Science
and Engineering Ethics 20.3 (2014): 753-767. Philosophers Index with Full Text. Web. 28
Oct. 2016.
Jansen, H. J., et al. "Biological Warfare, Bioterrorism, And Biocrime." Clinical Microbiology and
Infection 20.6 (2014): 488-496. CAB Abstracts. Web. 27 Oct. 2016
Miklaszewski, Jim, and Courtney Kube. "ISIS Detainee Tells U.S. of Terror Group's Chemical
Weapons Plans." NBC News. NBC News, 10 Mar. 2016. Web. 26 Oct. 2016.
Nutton, Vivian. "The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the
Greeks to the Renaissance." Medical history 27.01 (1983): 1-34. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
"State Vaccination Requirements." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 29 Jan. 2016. Web. 01 Nov. 2016.
Warrick, Joby. "FBI Investigation of 2001 Anthrax Attacks Concluded; U.S. Releases Details."
Washington Post. The Washington Post, 20 Feb. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2016.