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Chapter 5
India
Indus River flows south, west from Himalayas
Himalayas are highest range separating India from China
Archaeological digs at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
• What was there?
– City probably housed over 100,000 people
– Many smaller towns also in the area
• Physical layout
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Fired brick structures
Streets at right angles
Buildings 2, even 3, stories high – unusual
Sewage canals from houses to larger canal
• All this requires powerful government theocracy
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
• Communal granaries, temples of local gods were
together
• High standard of living
• Traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan
• Writings has not yet been deciphered
• We know almost nothing about religion, government,
society
• It is clear they were prosperous until about 1900 BCE
– Long decline, abandonment of site
– May have happened because river changed course, or malaria
broke out
– Perhaps land became unproductive
• Invasion of Aryan nomads
The Vedic Epoch
• Aryans
– Were one of earliest horse-breeding peoples of Asia
– Overwhelmed Indians, set themselves as master
group
– Our knowledge of them comes from Vedas, ancient
oral epics
– Indo-European speakers, worshipped gods of sky and
storm, used bronze
– Rigveda (oldest of Vedas) shows them to be violent
people
– In time, ruled all of northern India
– Gradually settled down as farmers, townspeople
Beginnings of the Caste System
• Four groups
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Brahmins - priests, highest ranking
Kshatrija – warriors
Vaishya – freemen, farmers, traders
Shudra – non-free serfs
• Over time, these classes evolved into more
complex castes
– Caste is social unit into which individuals are born,
dictates everything of their daily life
– Status of person cannot be changed
– Special duties, privileges
– High-caste person has little contact with lower castes
Caste System
• This stratification still continues
– By 18th century were over 3000 sub-castes
– Belief is still strong today
• Inhibits any type of change
– Nearly impossible for person to climb up social ranks
– Limits political power to highest ranks
– Discourages or prohibits cultural innovation by those
of lower ranks
• Under the caste system, Indian society became
highly stratified, immobile
Hinduism
• Fourth largest religion in the world – about 900
million members
• Is a way of life, philosophical system, inspiration
for art, basis of all Indian political theory
• Slow mix of Aryan beliefs and local Dravidian
culture
• Principles reflect patriarchy, class conscious
society
• Laws of Manu
• Major difference – tangible world is illusory,
person has to accept their fate in earthly life
Hinduism
• Basic principles and beliefs
– Non-material world is real, permanent
– Soul passes through series of existences, is
reincarnated
– Karma – tally of good and bad committed by
individual
– Dharma – code of morals for one’s caste
• Many gods, most important being
– Brahman – life force
– Shiva – creator and destroyer
– Vishnu - preserver
Hinduism
• Moksha
– Final release from reincarnation when person has
lived a perfect life
– End of individuality, soul is submerged into a worldsoul
• Two new modes of thought appeared
– Jainism
• Emphasized the sacredness of all life
• Found today only among small group of high-caste people
– Buddhism
Buddhism
• Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, or
Enlightened One
– His life is well documented
– Became teacher of large group of disciples
– His teachings eventually were more
important in China, Japan, than in India
Teachings of the Buddha
• Basic ideas
– Everyone can attain nirvana (release from earthly
woes)
– Release comes from self-taught mastery of oneself
– Gods have nothing to do with it
– Way to self-mastery is through Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path
• Four Noble Truths
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All life is permeated by suffering
All suffering is caused by desire
Desire can only be overcome by attaining nirvana
Way to nirvana is guided by eight principles
Teachings of the Buddha
• Eightfold Path
– Right (righteousness) ideas, thought, speech, action,
living, effort, consciousness, meditation
– Anyone who follows these steps will conquer desire,
be released from suffering
• Suffering and loss are caused by desire for
illusory power and happiness
• Once one sees these are not desirable,
temptation will vanish
• Then will find serenity of the soul, harmony with
nature and people
Buddhism
• Buddhism spread among Indians of all backgrounds
– Popularity from its democracy of spirit
– Everyone can discover path to nirvana
• After his death, Buddhism split
– Theravada
• Stricter version
• Claims to be the pure form of his teachings
– Mahayana
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More liberal, sees doctrines as initial step, not the ultimate word
Many ways to salvation
There are many buddhas, many more will appear
Followers far outnumber stricter adherents
– Two forms take a “live and let live” attitude
The Mauryan Dynasty
• Moved into political vacuum left when Alexander the
Great retreated
• Arthsastra – hard-bitten government policies
emphasizing that the end justifies the means
• Ashoka (ruled 269-232 BCE)
– Founding spirit of Indian unity, nationhood
– He became devout Buddhist, spread Buddhism, encouraged
mutual tolerance
– Period of internal prosperity external peace
– He saw himself as “father” of his people
• Successors were weak, conquered by invaders
– New peoples became sedentary, adopted Buddhism
– But political unity disintegrated
Daily Life in Ancient India
• Villagers were almost entirely elfgoverning
• Rural misery seen today is recent
phenomenon
• Plenty of suitable agricultural land
• When shortages happened, people could
emigrate to new area
Women in India
• Began in near-equality, possibly matriarchy
• Lost equality in Vedic Hindu era
• Customs became established like widow’s
suicide, isolation from all non-family males
• Woman’s dharma was to obey, serve husband
and sons
• Emphasis on female sexuality
– Woman seen as more sexually potent than man
– Possibly a personification of goddess of destruction,
Kali
Buddhism’s Spread
• Land routes from northwest made invasion possible
• Most intruders adopted Indian culture and Buddhism
• Little cultural exchange with China
– Extremely difficult to cross Himalayas or Burma’s jungles
• Exception was export of Buddhism to China in 1st
century CE
– Mahayana form deeply affected Chinese culture
– Most of China’s educated class became Buddhists
– This was possibly the most far-reaching single cultural event in
world history
– Chinese passed Buddhism to Korea, Vietnam, Japan
Discussion Questions
• 1. The caste system which still characterized
Indian society began in the Vedic Era. What do
you see as the differences between castes and
classes? Which provide mobility? What
advantages can you see in the caste system?
• 2. Ancient Indian religion centered on Hinduism
and Buddhism, two of the great religions of the
world. What common threads do you see
between them? What comparisons (not
contrasts) do you see with Christianity?