Download America Goes to War

America Goes
to War
The earliest known use of the term
First World War appeared during the war.
German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel
wrote shortly after the start of the war:
“There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ...
will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.”
—Indianapolis Star, 20 September 1914
Main Ideas
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World War I begins in 1914
The United States’ Neutrality
Events that lead the United States to war
The United States Declares War
The War Years; mobilization, public opinion,
civil liberties (impact on American society)
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points
The World Moves Toward War
• The sequence of events leading from peace in Europe to the
outbreak of a general war occurred with stunning rapidity:
(1) Sarajevo, June 28, 1914: Serbian terrorist assassinates Austrian
Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife
(2) Vienna, July 23: The Austrian government issues an ultimatum
threatening war against Serbia and invades that country for 4 days
(3) Berlin, August 1: As Austria’s ally, the German government
under Kaiser Wilhelm I declared war against Russia (ally of
Serbia)
(4) Berlin, August 3: Germany declares war against France, an ally
of Russia (Germany invades neutral Belgium)
(5) London, August 4: Great Britain, ally of France, declared war
against Germany
The War began in Europe in 1914 for
several reasons:
• Revival of
imperialism
• Excessive
nationalism
• Increasing
militarism
• Secret
diplomacy
The War Came as a Surprise for Most
Americans…
American Peace Society
House is a Late Victorian
house that was the
headquarters of the
American Peace Society
from 1911 to 1948.
• Most Americans were ignorant about
European affairs – they were very
“domestic-oriented.”
• The United States had acted as a major
power by intervening in the Latin America
and asserting an Open Door policy in China
• Yet, the U.S. held the tradition of not
allying itself with any European power
dating back to Washington and Jefferson
• President Wilson’s first response to the
outbreak of war was therefore predictableneutrality
The World Divides
Map of the participants in World
War I: Allied Powers in green,
Central Powers in orange, and
neutral countries in grey
• The Allied Powers formed- Great
Britain, France, and Russia
• The Central Powers formedGermany, Austria-Hungary and the
Ottoman Empire/Turkey
• In a relatively short period of time
(1914-1919) the United States and its
people rapidly moved through a wide
range of roles:
(1) Contented neutral country
(2) A nation waging war for peace
(3) A victorious world power
(4) Finally, an alienated isolationist
nation
Neutrality
Secretary of State William Jennings
Bryan kept a close eye on America’s
neutrality and the actions of other
nations.
• August 19, 1914: Wilson made a
speech appealing to Americans to
remain “impartial in thought as well
as in action.”
• However, this was not
accomplished due to the
partisanship originating from the
national origins of many Americans
(German-Americans, AngloAmericans, etc.)
• Even government policies would
negate neutrality – by 1915 the U.S.
was authorizing credits to the
Allies.
Problems with Britain
British seizure of American
ships was viewed as a
violation of a neutral nation’s
right to freedom of the seas.
• Britain arbitrarily added U.S. shipping to
the list of contraband goods making it
impossible for neutral nations to carry
any goods to the continent.
• The British claimed they had the right to
take neutral vessels into British ports for
searches.
• The British claimed the right to censor
the mail they carried in addition to
searches.
• Britain blockaded (mined) the North Sea,
which Wilson complained interfered with
freedom of the seas.
Problems with Germany-Submarine
Warfare
1915 painting depicting
the sinking of Lusitania
by the U-20.
• In 1916, Germany announced the creation of a
war zone around the British Isles to be patrolled
by German submarines.
• President Wilson and Secretary of State W. J.
Bryan disagreed on U.S. response to the German
policy.
• American, British, and French ships were attacked
• First major crisis challenging U.S. neutrality was
the sinking of the Lusitania
(1) Gulflight May 1915, 3 dead
(2) Lusitania May 1915; 128 dead
(3) Arabic August 1915, 2 lives lost
(4) Sussex March 1916, 3 dead
Sussex Pledge
Unrestricted submarine
warfare is a type of naval
warfare in which submarines
sink vessels such as
freighters and tankers
without warning, as opposed
to attacks per prize rules
• A strong American ultimatum was sent to the
Germans that if Germany did not at once
discontinue unrestricted submarine warfare,
the U.S. would sever diplomatic relations.
• The Sussex Pledge by Germany promised not
to sink merchant or passenger ships without
giving due warning
• Germany accepted the ultimatum but
stipulated that the U.S. should take steps to
halt illegal British acts as well. Wilson
accepted the pledge but rejected the
stipulation.
• For 8 months, there was no submarine activity
against merchant and passenger vessels.
Economic Links with Britain and France
• Even though the U.S. was a neutral nation, its economy became
closely tied to that of the Allied powers
• In early 1914, the U.S. had a slight recession but quickly
rebounded with the outbreak of war
• Because Wilson tolerated the British blockade while resisting
the German blockade, U.S. economic support favored the
Allied powers
• In addition to economic support, bankers like J.P. Morgan
extended as much as 3 billion in secured loans to Great Britain
and France
• These loans maintained U.S. prosperity and sustained the Allies
Public Opinion
• Wilson’s policies unintentionally favored Britain and so did
the attitudes of the majority of Americans
• The following factors swayed public opinion in favor of the
Allies
(1) Americans read in newspapers about the German atrocities
and the mean spirited autocrat-Kaiser Wilhelm
(2) The German sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 reinforced
Americans’ attitudes
(3) British war propaganda supported by American newspapers
influenced public opinion
• By and large, public opinion was also influenced according to
ethnic backgrounds (majority of native-born Americans
wanted Britain and France to win)
The War Debate
World War I era Navy recruiting
poster, by artist Herbert Paus
• After the sinking of the Lusitania, a
small but vocal minority of influential
Republicans from the East argued for
U.S. involvement against Germany
• The vast majority of Americans,
however, were thankful for a booming
economy and peace
• Eastern Republicans like T. Roosevelt
were the first to recognize that the U.S.
Army and Navy were hopelessly
unprepared for a major war
• They clamored for “preparedness”
soon after the European war broke out
Preparedness
War propaganda
calling for a bigger
Navy and recruitment
• Leading the campaign was the National
Security League which was organized by a
group of business leaders to promote
preparedness and to extend direct U.S. aid to
the Allies
• At first President Wilson resisted the call for
preparedness, but in late 1915, he changed
his policy and urged Congress to act
• At first the Democrats were enraged by
Wilson’s call to prepare, but after a
nationwide speaking tour, Wilson convinced
Congress to pass the National Defense Act
(increased Army to 175,000 soldiers)
• A month later, Congress approved the
construction of 50 warships
Opposition to War
Come on in, America, the
Blood's Fine! (1917) by
M.A. Kempf.
• Many Americans, especially in the
Midwest and West, opposed the
preparedness fearing it would lead to
U.S. involvement
• The antiwar activists included
Populists, Progressives, and Socialists
• Leaders included:
(1) Progressives- William Jennings Bryan,
Jane Addams, and Jeannette Rankin
(2) Woman suffragists actively
campaigned against military buildup
(after war was declared women groups
were loyal to the war effort)
The Election of 1916
Woodrow Wilson
Charles Evan Hughes
• President Wilson was well aware of the
1912 split of the Republican party as one of
the reasons for his victory
• Despite his own Progressive record,
Wilson’s chances for reelection did not
seem strong after T. Roosevelt declined the
Progressive Party’s nomination for
president in 1916 and rejoined the
Republicans (T.R.’s decision virtually
destroyed the Progressive party)
• Charles Evan Hughes became the
presidential candidate of a reunited
Republican party
Electoral Vote
• Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by
Hughes/Fairbanks, Blue denotes those won by Wilson/Marshall.
Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each
state.
“He kept us out of war.”
Wilson had campaigned for
reelection in 1916 with the
slogan, “He’s kept us out of
war.”
• The Democrats adopted as their
campaign slogan: “He kept us out of
war.”
• Wilson’s reelection was decided by the
following three factors in a very close
electoral and popular vote count
(1) Peace sentiment in the nation
(2) Wilson’s record of Progressive
leadership
(3) Hughes’ weakness as a candidate
• Democratic strength in the South and
West had overcome Republican
dominance in the East
Peace Efforts
Image of Wilson created
by 21,000 soldiers at
Camp Sherman,
Chillicothe, Ohio, 1918
• Wilson made repeated efforts to fulfill his
party’s campaign promise to keep out of the
war
(1) before the election he sent his chief foreign
policy advisor, Colonel Edward House, to
negotiate a peace settlement
(2) other missions were sent, but turned aside by
both the Allies and Central Powers
(3) in January of 1917, Wilson made a speech to
the Senate declaring U.S. commitment to the
idea of “peace without victory”
Decision for War
President Wilson before Congress, announcing
the break in official relations with Germany on
3 February 1917.
• In April 1917, President
Wilson went before Congress
to ask for a declaration of war
against Germany
What had happened to change
his policy from neutrality to
war?
• The most important reason for
the U.S. decision for war was a
sudden change in German
military strategy- Unrestricted
Submarine Warfare
Immediate Causes For War
The Zimmerman
Telegram as it was sent
from Washington to
Ambassador von
Eckardt (who was in
Mexico).
• A series of events would lead President
Wilson to ask for war in 1917:
Zimmerman Telegram:
-U.S. newspapers carried the shocking news
of a secret offer made by Germany to
Mexico
-the message proposed that Mexico ally itself
with Germany in return for the lost
territory of the American Southwest
(Mexican Cession)
-the Zimmerman Telegram aroused
nationalist anger and convinced Wilson
that Germany wanted war
Immediate Causes For War
continued…
Revolutionaries protesting on
February 1917
Russian Revolution:
-Wilson wanted war to be fought for a worthy
purpose: the triumph of democracy
-Russia was an autocratic czarist nation, but
when Russian revolutionaries overthrew
the government and proclaimed a republic,
Wilson applauded their ally’s change
(communists eventually took the
government months later)
Renewed Submarine attacks:
-in the first weeks of March, German subs
sank five U.S. merchant ships
Declaration of War
President Wilson delivering his war
message before Congress. April 2, 1917.
• On April 2, 1917, President
Wilson asked Congress to
recognize a state of war existed
between Germany and the U.S.
• His speech condemned
Germany’s submarine policy as
“warfare against mankind” and
declared “the world must be safe
for democracy”
• On April 6. 1917, Congress voted
for a declaration of war
Mobilization
Bernard Mannes Baruch was
an American financier, stock
investor, philanthropist,
statesman, and political
consultant. After his success in
business, he devoted his time
toward advising U.S. Presidents
Woodrow Wilson and Franklin
D. Roosevelt on economic
matters
• Could the U.S. mobilize its vast economic
resources fast enough to make a
difference?
• Since it would take many months to train
U.S. troops, the first American
contributions to the Allies would be
shipping needed supplies-rifles,
gunpowder, and food
• Wilson created a number of war agencies
that included:
(1) The War Industries Board, established
by Bernard Baruch set production
priorities and established control over
raw materials and prices
Mobilization continued…
Food Administration –
headed by Herbert Hoover,
promoted “meatless
Tuesdays and “wheatless
Wednesdays,” and victory
gardens.
(2)Food Administration, established by
Herbert Hoover, encouraged American
households to eat less meat and bread to
support the French and British troops
(3) Fuel Administration, established by
Harry Garfield, directed efforts to
conserve coal (nonessential factories were
closed, and daylight saving time went into
effect for first time)
(4) National War Labor Board, established
by William Howard Taft, helped arbitrate
disputes between workers and employers
(wages rose, union membership increased)
Financing the War
• Paying for the war was a daunting
task, so Wilson’s war government
would manage to raise $33 billion
in two years by a combination of
loans and taxes
(1) Four massive drives convinced
Americans to buy Liberty Bonds
to support the war
(2) Congress increased both personal
income and corporate taxes and
placed a tax on luxury goods
Raising Money for the War Effort
Public Opinion and Civil Liberties
"U.S. Official War
Pictures", propaganda
poster by Louis D.
Fancher
• The U.S. government used techniques of both
patriotic persuasion and legal intimidation to
ensure public support for the war effort
• Progressive journalist George Creel took
charge of a propaganda agency called the
Committee on Public Information (enlisted
artists, writers, vaudeville performers, and
movie starts to depict heroism of the “boys”
and the villainy of the Kaiser)
• Under Creel’s direction, films, posters,
pamphlets, and volunteer speakers urged
Americans to watch out for German spies and
do their part to win the war
War Hysteria and Patriotic
Enthusiasm
An APL intelligence report sent to the
U.S. government detailing proGerman statements
• Too often, the fervor to maintain the war
effort led to nativist groups taking out
their frustration and prejudices on
minorities
• One such group, the American Protective
League, mounted “Hate the Hun”
campaigns and used vigilante action to
attack all things German
Espionage and Sedition acts:
-a number of socialists and pacifists
criticized the government’s war policy
prompting the passage of the Espionage
Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918
Espionage and Sedition Acts
Blessed are the Peacemakers by
George Bellows, The Masses
1917
• The Espionage Act provided for up to 20
years in prison for persons who either
tried to incite rebellion in the armed
forces or obstructed the operation of the
draft
• The Seditions Act went much further by
prohibiting anyone from making
“disloyal” or “abusive” remarks about the
U.S. government
• About 2,000 people were prosecuted-half
were convicted
• Among those convicted was the Socialist
leader Eugene V. Debs, who was
sentenced to 10 years for speaking
against the war
Were these acts Unconstitutional?
Ultimately, the Schenck v. United States
case established the "clear and present
danger" test, which lasted until 1969 when
protection for speech was raised in
Brandenburg v. Ohio to "Imminent lawless
action".
Case of Schenck v. United States:
• The Supreme Court upheld the
constitutionality of the Espionage
Act in a case involving a man
who had been imprisoned for
distributing pamphlets against the
draft
• In 1919, Justice Oliver Wendell
Holmes concluded that the right
to free speech could be limited
when it represented a “clear and
present danger” to public safety
Armed Forces
• As soon as war was declared ,thousands of young men
volunteered for military enlistment
• The largest amount of recruits was conscripted (drafted) into
the army by a system requiring all men between 21 and 30
(later between 18 and 45) to register with the government
Selective Service Act 1917:
-a system of “selective service” was devised by Secretary of War
Newton D. Baker was a democratic method for drafting men
into service
-Draftees provided over half the total of 4.7 million Americans
who were issued uniforms during the war
Armed Forces continued…
Officers of the 366th Infantry
Regiment returning home from World
War I service.
African Americans:
-Racial segregation applied to the army
as it did to civilian life
-almost 400,000 African Americans
served in WWI in segregated units
-only a few were permitted to be officers
and all were barred from the Marine
Corps
-W.E.B. Du Bois had hoped that African
American service and fighting to
“make the world safe for democracy”
would lead to greater equality (he was
bitterly disappointed)
Effects on American Society
• All groups of American society-business and labor, women and
men, immigrants and native-born-were required to adjust to the
unusual demands of a wartime economy
More jobs for women:
-as men were drafted, women filled their jobs
-their contributions convinced Wilson and Congress to support the
19th Amendment
Migration of Mexicans and African Americans:
-job opportunities coupled with the Mexican Revolution caused
thousands of Mexicans to cross the border for work (Southwest
and Midwest)
-African Americans also moved for job opportunities (North)
Fighting the War
Two American soldiers run
toward bunker.
• By the time the first U.S. troops were
shipped overseas in late 1917, million
of European soldiers on both sides had
already been killed by artillery
barrages, machine gun fire, and poison
gas attack
• A second revolution in Russia by the
Bolsheviks took that nation out of the
war
• With no Eastern Front to divide its
forces, Germany could now
concentrate on an all-out push to
break the Allied lines in France
Naval Operations
An transatlantic convoy approaching
Brest on 1 November 1918. Photograph
taken from aboard USS Rambler
• Germany’s policy of unrestricted
submarine warfare was having its
desired effect
• Merchant ships bound for Britain
were being sunk at a staggering rate
prompting the U.S. Navy to
implement a convoy system of
armed escorts
• By the end of 1917, the system was
working well enough to ensure that
Britain and France would not be
starved into submission
American Expeditionary Force
General John J. Pershing
American Doughboys
• The AEF was commanded by General John J.
Pershing
• The first troops to see action were used to plug
weaknesses in the French and British lines (by
1918, the AEF assumed independent
responsibility on the Western Front)
The Last German offensive:
-enough U.S. troops were in place in the spring of
1918 to hold the line against the last German
assault
-at Chateau-Thierry on the Marne River,
Americans stopped the German advance and
struck back with a successful counterattack at
Belleau Wood
Drive to Victory
Images of the war
• In August through October of 1918, an
Allied offensive along the Meuse River and
through the Argonne Forest succeeded in
driving the Germans backward toward their
border
• U.S. troops participated in this drive at St.
Mihiel-the southern sector of the Allied line
• On November 11, 1918, the Germans
signed an armistice in which they agreed to
surrender their arms, give up much of their
navy, and evacuate occupied territory
• U.S. combat deaths totaled nearly 49,000,
but many more thousands would die of
disease
• Total U.S. fatalities in WWI were 112,432
Making Peace
Newspapers in the
United States followed
Wilson’s 14 Points and
the end of WWI
• During the war, President Wilson never
lost sight of his ambition to shape the
peace settlement when the war ended
(1) January of 1917 he stated that the U.S.
would seek “peace without victory”
(2) A year later he presented Congress a
detailed list of war aims known as the
Fourteen Points
• Several of the president’s Fourteen Points
related specifically to territorial questions
( the return of Alsace and Lorraine to
France or German evacuation of
Belgium)
The Fourteen Points
• Of greater significance were the following broad principles for
securing the peace:
(1) Recognition of freedom of seas
(2) An end to secret treaties
(3) Reduction of national armaments
(4) An “impartial adjustment of all colonial claims”
(5) Self determination for the various nationalities within the
Austro-Hungarian Empire
(6) “A general association of nations” (League of Nations)
• The last point was the one that Wilson valued the most
Timeline
• 1914 - World War I begins in Europe
- Panama Canal opened
• 1915 - Sinking of the Lusitania
- Reelection of Woodrow Wilson in "He kept us
out of war" campaign
• 1916 - Mexican border campaign by U.S. Army
- National Defense Act
• 1917 - United States enters World War I
• 1918 -Wilson announces 14 Points
- World War I ends
Key Names, Events, and Terms
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Neutrality
Submarine warfare
Lusitania
Sussex pledge
Allied Powers
Central Powers
Propaganda
Preparedness
Jeannette Rankin
Edward House
Zimmerman Telegram
Russian Revolution
mobilization
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George Creel
War agencies
Espionage Act 1917
Sedition Act 1918
Schenck v. United States
Selective Service Act
Bolshevicks
American Expeditionary Force
(AEF)
• Fourteen Points
Question
“German submarine warfare was the single most
important factor in causing the U.S. to enter World
War I.”
Evidence supporting this position includes all of the
following EXCEPT
(a) the sinking of the Lusitania
(b) the Zimmerman Telegram
(c) the Sussex pledge
(d) Wilson’s decision to break off diplomatic relations
with Germany
(e) Wilson’s war message to Congress, April 1917
Answer
B: the Zimmerman Telegram