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Information Processing Module 21 1 Memory Overview Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode What We Encode Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues 2 Memory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself. 3 Figure 7.1: Basic Memory Processes 4 Studying Memory: Information Processing Models Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval) Sequential Process How Memory 5 Works Nova • 21 13. According to the informationprocessing view of memory, the first stage in memory processing involves (AP99) • • • • • (A) Retrieval (B) Storage (C) Rehearsal (D) Encoding (E) Transfer 6 Information Processing Model Three Stages of Memory 7 Modifications to the Three-Stage Model 1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory. 8 Working Memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory 9 Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode 1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort. 10 Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen to you. 11 Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. © Bananastock/ Alamy Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories. 12 Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 13 Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2. 14 Memory Effects 1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. 2. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. 15 Encoding: Serial Position Effect 16 What We Encode Overview 1. Encoding by meaning 2. Encoding by images 3. Encoding by organization 17 Encoding Meaning Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding. 18 Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it. 19 Encoding 20 Mnemonics Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory. 21 Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. 1. Chunking 2. Hierarchies 22 Chunking Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941. 23 Chunking Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it. HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet 24 Encoding: Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled 25 Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. 26 Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy 27 Storage: Retaining Information Overview Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 28 Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 29 Whole Report Sperling (1960) R G T F M Q L Z S “Recall” RTMZ (44% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed. 30 Partial Report S X T J R S P K Y Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone “Recall” JRS (100% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 31 Time Delay A D I N L V O G H Low Tone Time Delay “Recall” Medium Tone N__ (33% recall) High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) 32 Sensory Memory Percent Recognized The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 80 60 40 20 0.15 0.30 0.50 Time (Seconds) 1.00 33 Sensory Memories The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long 34 Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 35 Working Memory Capacity The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two(1956). Ready? MUTGIKTLRSYP Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). George Miller 36 37 Chunking You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.” F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM But you didn’t know that you can handle 4 chunks 38 Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ MKT HIJ 547 547 544 541 … CH?? The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec. 39 Working Memory Duration 40 Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval 41 Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers 42 Memory Feats 43 Memory Stores Quick Look Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years 44 Storing Memories in the Brain 1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks. 2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze. Mapping Memory 45 in the brain Synaptic Changes In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning. Photo: Scientific American Link to Aplysia at nova 46 Synaptic Changes Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. Link to Memory in action at Nova 3:07 47 Stress Hormones & Memory Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events. Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Scott Barbour/ Getty Images 48 Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. 49 Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives Clive Wearing at AM Clive on YT 50 51 Fig. 7-23, p. 286 Amnesias After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia (HM) Memory Intact No New Memories Surgery Retrograde amnesia No old memories How memory works at Nova 10:15 Memory intact Surgery 52 Implicit & Explicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). A B C Towers of Hanoi Link 53 Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories. 54 Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Spanky’s Yearbook Archive Spanky’s Yearbook Archive 55 Recognition In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) 1. Name the capital of France. a. b. c. d. Brussels Rome London Paris 56 Recall In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) 1. The capital of Louisiana is ______. New Orleans…. 57 Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell fire smoke Fire Truck heat hose truck red 58 Semantic Networks Information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation 59 Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming. 60 Memory Test #2 • Memorize the following words (List 1) • read, pages, letters, school, study, reading, stories, sheets, cover, pen, pencil, magazine, paper, words 61 Memory Test #2 • Now…write down any words from the following list which were on the List 1: • house, pencil, apple, shoe, book, flag, rock, train, ocean, hill, music, water, glass, school 62 Memory Test #2 • Did you say that "book" was on list 1? Only pencil and school were on list 1. • Why do so many people think “book” was on List 1? 63 Memory Test #3 • Memorize the following words (List 1) • sheets, pillow, mattress, blanket, comfortable, room, dream, lay, chair, rest, tired, night, dark, time 64 Memory Test #3 • Now…write down any words from the following list which were on the List 1: • door, tree, eye, song, pillow, juice, orange, radio, rain, car, sleep, cat, dream, eat 65 Memory Test #3 • Did you say that "sleep" was on list 1? Only pillow and dream were on List 1 • Why do so many people think “sleep” was on List 1? • Constructive Memory • This is an example of a false memory. Using semantic encoding is good, but it can lead to semantic errors. Many people get a “false positive” error when a word shows up in List 2 that is semantically similar to many words in List 1. 66 Context Effects Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers 67 Context Effects After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Rovee-Collier, 1993). Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier, Rutgers University 68 Déjà Vu Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved 69 Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge • Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon – “The answer is on the tip-of-my-tongue… It starts with Q….” • Feeling-of-knowing Experience – If you don’t know the answer, how likely is it that you could recognize the answer? People are good at this. They “know it” but can’t retrieve it. 70 Moods and Memories We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory). Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures Our memories are mood-congruent. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. 71 EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad, Garber edits Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2008 72