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Themes and personalities in the Reformation: 1 (Michaelmas Term 2015)
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Background: devotion and thought on the eve of crisis
Background: humanism and Erasmus
Luther
Zwingli and the early Swiss Reformation
Reformations in Europe 1517-47
The origins of the Counter-Reformation
Radical Reformation
Sexuality, the family and gender in the Reformation
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The Background: Devotion and Thought on the eve of crisis
The Western Church of the Latin Rite (‘Roman Catholic Church’): two pillars:
A first pillar: the Mass (the Eucharist, the Lord’s Supper)
From ite missa est, its final dismissal: crucially dependent on ordained priesthood,
but Mass not invalidated by unworthy celebrant.
Clergy divided between regulars (monks and friars) and seculars (non-monastic
clergy). All additionally separated from laity by imposition of celibacy on seculars
(officially universal in the West from 2nd Lateran Council, 1139). Parish system
imposed from 9th and 10th cents: widened access to salvation (financed by tithe,
10th of agricultural produce).
Formalization of beliefs in purgatory from 12th cent. (defined by Council of Lyons
1274). Mass the highest form of purgatory prayer: chantries (cantariae - cantare, “to
sing”), including ‘Colleges’ (collegia) of secular clergy.
Gilds/brotherhoods/fraternities/confraternities channelled lay piety. Importance of
intermediary objects/people/places in medieval devotion. Devotional life flourishing
on eve of Reformation, with regional variations.
A second pillar: Papal obedience in Western Christendom
Five patriarchs in the Church of the Roman Empire, but only one of them was
based in the West: Rome (reputed successor of Peter).
Western Latin Church: international society united by canon law and papal
allegiance, monasteries under Rule of St Benedict, together with other international
organizations, i.e. religious Orders (e.g. Cistercians, Dominicans, Knights
Hospitaller). Common Latin language. Threatened by different cultural/language
consciousnesses and resurgence of secular dynasties (NB avoid talking of
nationalism/nation-states in Reformation).
The Conciliarist challenge
Arguments about poverty: 13th/14th century Franciscan friars (NB esp. William of
Ockham (c.1285-1347), debated what to do if the Pope was a heretic.
Late 14th century schism: 2, then 3 Popes. Council called to Konstanz (Constance)
1414. Decree Sacrosancta 1417 proclaimed supremacy of Council. Proposal for
Councils every decade. Council of Basel 1431-49.
Crisis of the fall of Constantinople 1453: 1460 Pope Pius II in Bull Execrabilis
forbade appeal to General Council. Recovery in power, wealth and claims to
authority for papacy. NB rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica! But conciliarism
persisted.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The Devotio Moderna
Movement of both clerical and lay piety, emphasizing austerity and personal piety,
but also valuing community life. Northern Netherlands origins - Augustinian house
at Windesheim (Holland) important: cf. also The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à
Kempis (c. 1380-1471). Challenge to double clerical/lay standard in spiritual life,
but not necessarily to the Church.
Thought-systems in the medieval West:
Universities created 12th cent. to cope with flood of new information from the East,
esp. Aristotle. Dominant system Scholasticism (scholae = university schools):
using scholastic method, religious practice might be justified primarily by rational
means. A system of argument. Rivalled from 14th cent. by Humanism, of
particular significance for the Swiss/south German Reformation. Some Protestant
reformers humanists, some scholastics.
Division within scholasticism: realism v. nominalism. Thomas Aquinas (c.122574), Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308) among leading exponents of realism: dominant
c.1200-c.1350. Statements (e.g. on transubstantiation) based on the assumption
of universals: a nomen has a universal reality. Nominalism (denying the existence
of universals) dominant c.1350-c.1500.
NB that dispute between them primarily a philosophical debate. A further
theological division within nominalism: rerunning the debates between
Augustine of Hippo (354-430) and Pelagius (c.350-c.440). Can human actions
merit salvation?
 Via moderna - e.g. William of Ockham, Robert Holcot (d.1349), Pierre D'Ailly
(1350-1420), Gabriel Biel (c.1420-95). Strong e.g. in Univs of Paris, Heidelberg,
Erfurt, Cambridge. Tended towards optimism about human condition: concept of
reciprocal covenant between God and humanity. Tried to avoid charge of
Pelagianism: argued God ascribed virtue to human actions, rather than there
being sufficient inherent virtue in them for salvation. Humanity ‘faciendo quod in
se est, meretur gratiam de congruo’ [‘by doing what is in itself, obtains an
appropriate grace’] (Biel). Positive value on ‘works’.
 The schola Augustiniana moderna - Thomas Bradwardine (c.1290-1349: De
Causa Dei contra Pelagium), criticized via moderna approach: more pessimistic,
Augustinian view of human condition. ‘Works’ worthless for salvation. Taken
up by Gregory of Rimini (d.1358), of Order of Hermits of St. Augustine. Luther
belonged to same Order. Direct links? Dubious.
B.B. Warfield: ‘The Reformation, inwardly considered, was just the ultimate triumph
of Augustine’s doctrine of grace over Augustine’s doctrine of the Church’ (Calvin
and Augustine, 1956, p. 332).
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Humanism [NOT the ‘New Learning’!]
Renaissance Humanism
‘Humanista’ (teacher of liberal/non-theological arts subjects) and ‘humanae litterae’
late 15th century terms, but early 19th century scholars invented ‘Humanism’ to
describe trend of thought originating in 14th century Italy: concentration on exploring
human experience, particularly through classical literature (a minor subject in
medieval universities).
Italy had a large number of polities/cities with different types of government, some
with much scope for political participation. First great writer Francesco Petrarca
(‘Petrarch’, 1304-74), invented term ‘Rebirth’ (rinascita) for literary achievements of
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321): 19th cent. scholars then used this in French form
(Renaissance) to describe a cultural phenomenon.
What was a humanist?
A textual editor? Previous phases (‘Renaissances’): [1] Carolingian period (9th
cent.) [2] rediscovery of Aristotle (12th cent.)
New factors (NB: all mediated through Islam!):
 spread of paper manufacture (as opposed to parchment) from 13th cent.
 printing with moveable type (1st surviving dated European printed book the
Mainz Psalter, 1457)
 conquest of Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks (Constantinople fell
1453): Greek monastic libraries dispersed westwards
Enthusiasm for classical literature which emerged from this editing and publishing:
gave new awareness of Greek literature not filtered by Latin translation (e.g. Homer
hardly known until 15th cent.). Also transformed Latin from medieval forms to
imitate M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE).
Produced dissatisfaction with scholastic learning; emphasised authenticity.
Donation of Constantine seen as 8th century forgery by a Dominican c.1380, then
Nicholas von Kues/of Cusa 1432-3, Lorenzo Valla 1440, Reginald Pecock 1450.
Doubts about Vulgate’s textual accuracy; re-examination of Hebrew Tanakh [OT]
beyond Septuagint’s Greek filtering of the text. Shock to read Gospels, Pauline
Epistles in [common or koine] Greek.
Do not confuse with use of ‘humanism’ in 19th/20th cent. context, with connotation
of rejection of theism. Few humanists rejected Christianity (?Giovanni Pico della
Mirandola, 1463-94); most saw their work as underpinning Christian faith.
Nevertheless, value placed on pre-Christian literature was paradoxical. Cf.
rediscovery of Hermetic literature (books of ‘Hermes Trismegistus’) – stimulus to
natural philosophy (what we call science).
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Moves to reform both scholastic and humanist
Revival of Aquinas also important: NB Tommaso de Vio (Gaetano or Cajetan,
1469-1534). Eventually Council of Trent made Aquinas into standard for Catholic
scholarship [NB not so in late medieval West].
Monastic reform: Observant Franciscans; Minims (Rule finalised 1507); Capuchins
(Rule 1529). Problems for older monastic Orders with commendam system (but NB
few commendators England; Cassinese Benedictine Congregation Italy, Bursfeld
Congregation in German lands).
Individual diocesan initiatives: use of prône (vernacular devotions in Mass) in
much of Europe. Guillaume Briçonnet (1470-1534), Bishop of Meaux. Reform
tainted by memory of Dominican Girolamo Savonarola (1452-98) and campaign for
radical social reform in Florence. Apocalyptic excitement/millenarianism in much of
Europe. Lateran Council 1512-17.
Desiderius Erasmus (?1469-1536)
Born illegitimate son of a priest at Rotterdam or Gouda. Early character repression
after he reluctantly entered reformed Augustinian house at Steyn; then secretary to
Bp. of Cambrai. c.1492 began wanderings round Europe.
English visits 1499, 1505-6, 1509-14, 1515, 1517; c. 1501 began learning Greek:
turned main attention away from writing secular money-spinners such as the Adagia
(enlarged editions from 1500), to theology and biblical translation.
1516 began partnership with the Basel printer Johan Froben: publication of the
Greek New Testament (1516). Cf. e.g. tr. of ‘metanoeite’ in Mt. 3.2 etc.: not
poenitentiam agite, but resipiscite. NB pacifism: agt. both Augustine and Aquinas.
Discreet fascination with Origen (radicals soon picked this up).
Height of apparent influence 1517-19, while Luther crisis broke. 1521 fled
Louvain/Leuven to escape assoc. with extreme conservative academic
establishment: finally persuaded to write against Luther 1524. NB he chose to write
on free will (thus a critique of Augustine as well as of Luther). 1529 fled Basel for
Freiburg im Breisgau to escape assoc. with Reformers (d. Basel).
Paradoxical life: remained in old Church after damaging it with ridicule: cf. the
Colloquies (intended for education in humanist Latin style). Hatred of monastic life:
‘what is the state but a great monastery?’ [Preface to Enchiridion, 1518].
Intensification of official moral stringency throughout later 16th century Europe
partly thanks to effect of his writings. But died renouncing Reformation, attacking
some of humanism’s results. Lack of dogmatism appealed to radicals: not to
mainstream Catholics or Protestants!
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Martin Luther and the Reformation
Little fundamental challenge to the Church 1500: discontent about its failure to live
up to the standards it set itself (its paradigm). Indulgences (remission of
temporal or purgatory punishment merited by sin): based on notion of treasury
of merit granted to Pope by Christ (cf. Clement VI’s Bull Unigenitus, 1343); became
possible to buy them. 1476 Raimund Peraudi said they could supplement prayers
for souls presumed to be in purgatory, not simply benefit the living. Humanists
much criticised them.
Luther b. Eisleben (Saxony) 1483; father a miner from a family of Bauern
(prosperous farmers – not ‘peasants’!) To University of Erfurt 1501: joined
Augustinian Eremite friary as a result of a storm 1505 (see, unsympathetically,
E.H. Erikson, Young Man Luther); full member 1506; ordained priest 1507. 1510
visited Rome in Observant delegation.
1508 sent to Wittenberg, 1511 settled there permanently; became and remained
protégé of Friedrich (Frederick) ‘the Wise’, Elector of [Ernestine] Saxony (i.e. one
of seven princes who elected Holy Roman Emperor; be warned of separate entity
also ruled by a Duke from the Wettin dynasty, Albertine or Ducal Saxony, firmly
Catholic until 1539).
1513-14 lectures on Psalms (Gerald L. Bruns noted he had psalters printed for
annotation). 1515 lectures on Romans (NB: before Erasmus’s Greek New
Testament, 1516): emphasis on grace external to sinner, authority of Scripture.
Echoes of Augustine of Hippo (354-430). NB nevertheless not yet challenging the
Church’s paradigm, only criticising its conduct.
Pope Leo X needed cash to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica; Albrecht [Hohenzollern]
of Brandenburg needed dispensation as Archbishop of Magdeburg to acquire
Archbishopric of Mainz (one of Electorates). Bull Sacrosanctis 1515 proclaimed
sale of indulgence for it; Dominican Johann Tetzel, preached promoting it. 31
October 1517 Luther gave notice of disputation condemning indulgences.
Heidelberg Disputation (a meeting of his Augustinian Order) 1518: his ‘theology of
the cross’. But now opponents made papal authority main issue, not
justification/penance. Summons to Rome modified to appearance before papal
legate, Cardinal Cajetan (Gaetano – Tommaso de Vio), 1518: another Dominican.
Luther appealed to General Council [forbidden in Execrabilis, 1460] His
?experience in the ‘tower’ (Turmerlebnis) may be as late as this. Disputation with
Johann Eck, Leipzig 1519, forced Luther into a corner: said Jan Hus (burned 1415)
‘evangelical and Christian’ in many beliefs.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Leo X condemned Luther June 1520 (the Bull Exsurge Domine). In response,
Luther published
(1) Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (written for lay
governing elite in the Empire)
(2) The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (written for the clergy)
(3) The Freedom of a Christian (statement of the positive aspects of his
theology).
Together these symbolise the paradigm shift from traditional religion in the
Lutheran revolution. Yet NB Luther still accepted existence of purgatory until c.1530
(cf. Craig Koslofsky, The Reformation of the Dead).
December 1520 he burned Exsurge Domine in Wittenberg. Imperial Diet at Worms
1521: edict against Luther, although Holy Roman Emperor Charles V honoured his
safe-conduct. Retired to the Wartburg (started translating the Bible into German)
until called back to Wittenberg 1522 to end radical disorder, led by Andreas von
Bodenstein of Karlstadt (c.1480-1541).
‘Peasants’ Wars’ (Bauernkrieg, Farmers’ War) 1524-5; Luther condemned
rebellion (Rom. 13.1): major trauma for developing Reformation. Soon after, gained
support from several imperial princes.
Disagreements with Huldrych Zwingli etc. Landgraf Philipp of Hessen called
Colloquy of Marburg 1529: failed over doctrine of Lord’s Supper. The Diet at
Speyer 1529: origin of name Protestant (group among princes).
Lutheran church organization and the problem of the godly prince
Confession of Augsburg (Confessio Augustana) 1530, mainly devised by Philipp
Melanchthon (1497-1560). Deliberately moderate. Revised version (Variata) 1540,
designed (unsuccessfully) to accommodate worries of ‘Reformed’ theological
grouping, principally on Lord’s Supper.
Schmalkaldic League founded 1531: raised further questions about resisting lawful
power (Rom. 13.1 or Acts 5.29?). Luther uncomfortable with secular rule in church:
his ‘Two Kingdoms’ theory, but the prince was a ‘Notbischof’ (‘emergency bishop’).
Philipp of Hessen’s bigamy, allowed by Luther, Melanchthon and Martin Bucer,
became public scandal 1540. Colloquy of Regensburg (Ratisbon) 1541 failed to
reconcile Catholics and Protestants.
1542 Luther agreed to consecrate evangelical Bishop for Naumburg. Ecclesiology
not a priority for him. Generally conservative liturgies established in Lutheran
polities (mass remained in Latin). His increasingly vicious language against the
Jews (cf. On the Jews and their lies, 1543) part of his general ideology of the Last
Days.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Heinrich Bullinger (1504-75): healing Zürich’s wounds
Antistes of Zürich from 1531, Bullinger concentrated on ecclesiastical not secular
politics. Theology of ‘covenant’ built on Zwingli’s positive attitude to divine law –
Israel’s covenantal relationship to God a model for all polities. Reformation renewed
Covenant: sacraments its seals. Cultivated international links: e.g. from 1536 with
England and Thomas Cranmer – student exchange visits (1530s) and hospitality to
refugees from Henry VIII (1540s) and Queen Mary (1550s); also Italian (exAugustinian) Peter Martyr Vermigli (1500-62), exiled Strassburg, Oxford, Zürich.
Bullinger and Oswald Myconius of Basel (1490-1546) formulated First Helvetic
Confession 1536; Bullinger sponsored Second Helvetic Confession 1566. Great
interest and influence in eastern Europe, rivalling Geneva among non-Lutherans.
Strassburg [Strasbourg]: a new Rome?
Imperial Free City: pivotal position near River Rhine: cultural Franco-German
frontier. City council widely tolerant (even of Anabaptists, if they kept quiet). Martin
Bucer (1491-1551), Matthis Zell (1477-1548) and wife Katharina [Schutz] (14971562), etc. Bucer, conscious of Anabaptist stress on discipline, anxious to establish
strong Church structure. John Calvin imitated his ideas (e.g. on Consistory,
fourfold ministry – pastor/doctor/elder/deacon).
Geneva: the successor to Strassburg
Jean Calvin (1509-64) took over chaotic reformation in Geneva 1536; after row and
exile in Strassburg, back in charge of Genevan Church 1541. Continuing tensions
with city authorities, so strong separation of church and civil power. Growing
influence of successive editions of Institutes 1536-59.
Attempts at compromise on the Lord’s Supper
Luther’s colleague Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) had drafted and presented
‘Lutheran’ Augsburg Confession to Diet 1530: Bucer involved in presenting
Tetrapolitan Confession (Confession of the Four Cities). Kept distinct line e.g.
on Lord’s Supper, destruction of images.
But early 1530s Melanchthon decided Luther mistaken on eucharistic presence.
Modified Augsburg Confession 1540 – Variata – to reach out to non-Lutherans.
Body and blood not now ‘truly and substantially present’: ‘shown forth’
(‘exhibeantur’, 1540) rather than ‘distributed’ (‘distribuantur’, 1530) to
communicants.
Calvin sought middle way like Bucer/Melanchthon. Neither CONFUSE nor
SEPARATE sign and thing signified: distinctio sed non separatio.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Three reforming Archbishops face ambiguity, 1530s:
 Laurentius Petri (Lars Petersson; 1499-1573), Abp. of Uppsala (Sweden) 1531.
Gustav I Vasa (King 1521-60) made no decisive break with Rome into 1540s.
Sweden not yet confessionally Lutheran.
 Thomas Cranmer, Abp. of Canterbury (England; 1489-1556) 1533. Traditional
mass, compromise theological statements, despite break with Rome, under Henry
VIII (king 1509-47). Edward VI (king 1547-53) gave chance for more radical
religious revolution. Mary abruptly ended it –to 1558.
 Hermann von Wied (1477-1552), Prince-Abp. and Elector of Cologne (Holy
Roman Empire) from 1515. Reforming provincial council 1536: advice of reforming
Catholic Johann Gropper (1503-59), but later, Martin Bucer (!)
All in 1530s offered possible ‘Third Way’ reunion, neither Lutheran nor Roman.
A near-miss in reunion: the Colloquy of Regensburg (Ratisbon) 1541
Gropper and Bucer prepared compromise statement on justification; papal legate
Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542) sympathetic. But he would not yield on
transubstantiation, nor Protestants on sacramental confession; Rome and Luther
both vetoed justification statement. Von Wied now moved out of Roman
obedience, with new assistant Albert Hardenberg (c. 1510-75).
Brian A. Gerrish’s distinctions between symbolic eucharistic doctrines:
 Zwingli: the symbolic memorialist
 Bullinger: the symbolic parallelist
 Calvin: the symbolic instrumentalist
1549 Bullinger worked out Consensus Tigurinus (‘Zürich agreement’) with Calvin.
‘Supper-strife’ with Lutherans esp. Joachim Westphal of Hamburg (1510/11-74).
Now a Reformed grouping was emerging.
Protestant disaster and compromise: Lutheran and Reformed
Luther d. 1546. Showdown between Abp von Wied and Cologne Cathedral
Chapter: Charles V deposed him. Schmalkaldic League defeated 1546-7 (NB
battle of Mühlberg, April 1547); Charles imposed Augsburg Interim 1548. Furious
reaction, esp. from Gnesio-Lutherans: self-conscious heirs of Luther.
Charles defeated by 1552: Diet and Peace of Augsburg 1555 established principle
cuius regio eius religio – but only between papalist Catholics and Lutherans –
Reformed left out. What was a Lutheran? Consequent conflict:
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Gnesio-Lutherans increasingly extreme on ‘bondage’ of human will, and statements on
objective corporal presence of body and blood in consecrated bread and wine
‘Philippists’ followed Melanchthon on stressing free will after justification and looking for
broader formula on eucharistic presence
Dispute made more bitter by memories of Philippist compromise with Interim.
NB Formula/Book of Concord, 1577-80: something for both Lutheran wings. Free
will and Eucharistic real presence. Both opposed to Reformed theology!
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The origins of the ‘Counter-Reformation’
An Iberian Reformation before the Reformation
Outcome of medieval warfare (Reconquista) against the Moors (Muslims) was
destruction of multi-faith Spain; replaced by monocultural Christianity. Spearheaded
by monarchy: Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile (two kingdoms 1474
united by their 1469 marriage, though remained separate political entities: refer to
both as Spain).
In rechristianised Spain, acute suspicion of Jewish/Islamic converts (‘New
Christians’) among ‘Old Christians’, who stressed Limpieza de sangre (purity of
blood). 1480 monarchs set up Spanish Inquisition. Strength in Castile: NB
debate, e.g. Henry Kamen’s revisionism, on role/effectiveness. Francisco Ximénes
de Cisneros, Franciscan Observant, Archbishop of Toledo (1436-1517), Cardinal
and Inquisitor-General 1507; forced reforms of religious Orders, destroyed Jewish
books, yet patron of humanism.
Islamic kingdom of Granada captured 1492 - the fall-out:
70,000/100,000 Jews left Spain; less thorough expulsion from Portugal. Many
stayed (conversos or ‘New Christians’). Muslims (mudéjars) also gradually lost legal
status. Much religious confusion; apocalyptic excitement. Mystical energies
diverted into Christianity. Movement of popular renewal (Alumbrados or
‘enlightened ones’) persecuted, especially when Lutheranism appeared. Juan de
Valdés (?1490-1541) escaped to Spanish Naples: inspired Spirituali (see below).
Catholic spiritual vigour elsewhere: the Catholic Reformation
New Orders, e.g. Capuchins (reformed Franciscans), founded by Matteo da Bascio
(di Bassi) 1529; later led by Bernardino Ochino (1487-1564). Easier to reform
regulars, but also Theatines, secular priests, founded by Gaetano da Thiene
(1480-1547: St. Cajetan: do not confuse with ‘Cajetan’, Tommaso de Vio); 1st
superior Giampietro Carafa (1476-1559).
NB humanism, but also apocalyptic excitement (Italy disrupted 1490s-1550s in
Valois-Habsburg wars). Efforts to deal with syphilis: Oratories in Italy, parallel to
the Devotio Moderna of Northern Europe. Angela Merici (1474-1539): the
Ursulines. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits): Ignatius Loyola (1491/5-1556):
conversion 1521 (Spiritual Exercises 1522). Loyola’s circle in Paris 1528; took vows
1534, papal charter 1540.
Now an ‘Anti-Reformation’ (M.W.D. Jones)? Paul III (Alessandro Farnese), Pope
1534, created reform-minded Cardinals: 1535 John Fisher (1469-1535), Gasparo
Contarini (1483-1542); 1536 Reginald Pole (1500-58), Carafa. Commission De
Emendanda Ecclesia 1537.
Differences of strategy appeared in the 1530s:
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
 Spirituali (?Erasmian ‘reformists’): Contarini/Pole, Giovanni Morone (150980), preachers Ochino, Pietro Martire Vermigli (‘Peter Martyr’, 1499-1562);
poets, artistic patrons, lay theologians Vittoria Colonna (1490-1547, close
friend of Michelangelo), and Colonna’s cousin by marriage Giulia Gonzaga
(1513-66) Many admirers of Juan de Valdés: Protestant/alumbrado
influences – how radical might they be? Jesuits close to them.
 ‘hardliners’ (Zelanti), esp. Carafa, Superior of Theatines (took name from his
diocese, Chieti), future Paul IV. Saw opponents as heretics.
New directions after the Colloquy of Regensburg (Ratisbon) 1541
Gropper and Bucer prepared compromise statement on justification. Papal legate
Contarini sympathetic, but would not yield on transubstantiation, nor Protestants on
confession; Rome and Luther both vetoed justification statement. Crisis 1542:
defections to Protestantism of charismatic preachers sponsored by Contarini:
Ochino and Vermigli. Roman Inquisition set up 1542 (headed by Carafa). The
beginning of the Counter-Reformation? Council of Trent began 1545.
Jesuits remodelled. Little early interest in Protestant Reformation: 1550, papal bull
added ‘defence of the faith’ to aims. New emphasis on education (especially
secondary/university: for opinion-formers). Massimo Firpo notes curious silence in
archives. Over 1000 members by 1550’s: success led to ‘Black Legend’, created
by rival religious Orders and Protestants alike!
The expansion of Europe: the Iberian achievement
Portuguese began exploring Africa: captured Ceuta from Moors 1415. 1497 Vasco
da Gama (c. 1469-1524) reached India around African coast, via Cape of Good
Hope. 1492 (cf. fall of Granada) Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) reached
America on behalf of Isabel of Castile.
‘Discovering’ non-Biblical continent puzzling; more apocalyptic excitement. Pope
Alexander VI divided ‘New World’ between Spain and Portugal 1493/4, but Pope, by
agreement 1508, excluded from influence in Spanish New World dominions. By
1523 Spanish monarchy appointing all bishops.
Conquistadores (plus germs) overran Inka and Aztec Empires: problems of
conscience for some Iberians about unprovoked aggression, particularly Dominicans
Bartolomé de las Casas (1484-1566) and Francisco de Vitoria (1483-1546),
building on Aquinas. Yet fewer qualms about enslaving Africans for use in
America: became characteristic of western European colonialism. 1580
Spanish/Portuguese monarchies (and Empires) united, until 1640. Made
Christianity the first worldwide religion.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The Radical Reformation
Problems:
(1) Definition: ‘Anabaptist’ = ‘rebaptiser’, out-group term; ‘die Täufer’ =
‘baptisers’. ‘Radical’: G.H. Williams (1962); ‘Left Wing’: R.H. Bainton.
Theological? Contrast with prevailing mood? Social? Political? A combination?
Hans Hillerbrand: ‘those who undertook to alter the existing societal order on the
basis of religion’ (Radical Tendencies in the Reformation, 29) - ‘Alternate’ (i.e.
Alternative) Reformation, against Magisterial Protestant Reformation, e.g. Luther,
Calvin etc.?
(2) Classification: Williams/B. Reardon: (1) Anabaptists (2) Spirituals (3)
Rationalists. But NB also J. Stayer on origins: polygenesis, not monogenesis.
Let’s try again
NB Church’s 312 alliance with Constantine I ‘the Great’, d. 337: magisterials
approved. Key early debates on Christology (nature of Christ) were after that,
culminating in Council of Chalcedon (451): magisterials accepted. Radicals
(following Erasmus) liked Origen (c.185-c.154), not Augustine (354-430).
So possible radical reassessments of Christianity: (1) nature of Church:
gathered group of saints. Validated by persecution. (2) Christology (or anything
else post-312). (3) Source of revelation beside or replacing scripture (individual
mind/spirit – new revelation?). NB different combinations.
(1) Reassessing the Church:
Radical Hussite Union of Brethren/Unitas Fratrum (1457). Luther’s ‘Christian
Freedom’ 1520s. Zürich 1520s: Dr. Balthasar Hubmaier (?1485-1528; former pupil
of Johann Eck!), parish priest Waldshut, at 2nd 1523 Zürich disputation, pushing
Zwingli’s reformation further: links with Karlstadt at Wittenberg. 21 Jan. 1525
another group began rebaptising: ‘Anabaptist’ Swiss Brethren.
The first great confrontation: Farmers’ War/Bauernkrieg (1524-5) and
after
Traditional patterns of landlord-tenant conflict; Reformation encouraged militancy,
disrupted village leaderships. Thomas Müntzer (?1490-1525) less important than
Swabian groups - more mainstream Memmingen 12 Articles. Brutal crushing
radicalised some. Schleitheim Confession Feb.1527.
A magisterial future, or separation?
Hubmaier pastor at Nikolsburg/Mikulov (Moravia) 1526-7 under patronage of Count
Leonhard von Liechtenstein. Habsburgs arrested, burned Hubmaier - though he
supported obedience to secular powers v. Hans Hut (c. 1490-1527).
Communitarian Anabaptists regrouped at Austerlitz/Slavkov (Moravia) from 1529
under Tyrolean Jacob Hut[t]er (burned 1536): communities (Bruderhöfe) rejected
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
secular government, military service: Acts 4.32-37. Peter Riedemann, Account of
our Faith 1540. Soon respected as craftsmen/producers.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The Last Days: wait or fight?
Melchior Hoffman (1498-c.1543) spread millenarianism (imprisoned for life
Strassburg, 1533); new militancy beyond earlier areas affected. Low Countries
leadership: Jan Matthijszoon (d. 1534) captured Münster 1534; Jan Beuckelszoon
(John of Leyden) (1510-35) took over as King of the Last Days: joint
Catholic/Lutheran siege. Batenburger militancy followed in Netherlands, but also
Menno Simons (1496-1561), pacifist, avoiding secular government. ‘Mennonite’
anabaptists 20-30% population N. Netherlands by 1600?
(2) Reassessing Christology: two possibilities against Chalcedon:
(a) Unitarianism: make Christ less human, more divine: flesh from heaven
(Christ’s ‘docetic’ appearance of human existence on earth – Greek dokein – to
seem). Found in western Europe: Netherlands, Germany, England. ?Connected
to hatred of the Mass, purity of the Church? Erasmian? Expounded by Hoffman
(hence ‘Melchiorite’ christology), also Menno Simons.
(b) ‘Arianism’: make Christ more human, less divine: southern/eastern
Europe. ?Roots in Spain (cf. turmoil c. 1500, destruction of Islam, Judaism.) –
through Italian ‘Spirituali’ and Juan de Valdés. Leading figures usually humanists:
Spanish Michael Servetus (1511-53), burned by Calvin. 1550 secret ‘Anabaptist’
synod Venice found no trace of doctrine of Trinity in Bible, so became Arians, and
downplayed Christ’s divinity. Dispersed from Italy into eastern Europe via Italian
trading links. Eastern European political fragmentation encouraged official
declarations of toleration:
 Declaration of Torda (Transylvania), 1568: ‘ministers should everywhere preach
and proclaim [the Gospel] according to their understanding of it, and if their community is
willing to accept this, good; if not, however, no one should be compelled by force if their spirit is
not at peace, but a minister retained whose teaching is pleasing to the community’
 Confederation of Warsaw (Poland), 1572: ‘we who differ with regard to religion
will keep the peace with one another, and will not for a different faith or a change of churches
shed blood nor punish one another by confiscation of property, infamy, imprisonment or
banishment, and will not in any way assist any magistrate or officer in such an act.’
Lelio Francisco Maria Soz[z]ini (1525-62); his nephew Fausto Soz[z]ini
(Socinus) (1539-1604) found acceptance first in Transylvania, then Poland (NB
Rakow, its academy and Rakovian Catechism, 1605). ‘Socinians’.
(3) Reassessing revelation:
Links with earlier mysticism: stressed ‘inner light’ against ‘paper pope’ of scripture.
Müntzer’s nature mysticism, ‘inner light’. Much humanist influence: Hans Denck
(c.1495-1527), Sebastian Franck (1499-1542), historian and Platonist: a radical
Erasmian. David Joris (c.1501-56), painter and poet. Spirituals tended to attract
upper social strata, especially in Netherlands: Calvinists called them Libertines.
Pantheism and antinomianism in Family of Love under Henrik Niklaes (‘Mr. H.N.’):
the Netherlands, England.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
The Reformation: Family, Sexuality, Gender
Continuity: theories of gender
Four humours: hot/moist (blood - ‘sanguine’ temperament), hot/dry (choler),
cold/dry (black bile, i.e. ‘melancholy’) cold/moist (phlegm). Female on cold side,
also lacking control, disorder (cf. Eve, the Fall). Medical discoveries disruptive.
New roles c. 1700: gender separation. Women now seen as emotionally
vulnerable; men still passionate – but now they lacked control.
Continuity: the family


extended kinship, multi-generational family structures in Celtic west; eastern, southern Europe
from at least 14th cent., nuclear family structure of north-west Europe, including England characteristics:
(a) two generations in household: English ‘extended and voluntary’ relationships with kin (cf. use of
word ‘cousin’). Elderly in own homes.
(b) marriage legally easy to undertake, BUT late marriage and pregnancy. Wrigley
and Schofield, Population History (1989) p. 255: MEN 28.0 1600-49, 27.8 1650-99;
WOMEN 26.0 1600-49, 26.5 1650-99.
(c) small age gap between husband and wife. Patriarchal discourse?
(d) unmarried young servants in household: ‘lifecycle servants’.
Adapted to economic circumstance. Highest proportion of 14 and under 1556 (37%); lowest 1671 (29%).
Lowest of 60+ 1566 (7%); highest 1716 (10%). C. one-third marriages second or later - quarter/fifth of
children without one natural parent (one-sixth 1980s). How were late-teens/early twenties spent
sexually? Low bastardy rates (3%): little apparent use of contraception.
Continuity: public attitudes to homosexuality
Humanist imitation of classical homosexual literary genre (cf. Theodore Beza). But
general paranoiac hatred. For Protestants, sodomy = Catholicism. For all: sodomy
= other cultures (e.g. Islam, Japanese, native Americans). Behaviour part of general
temptation to debauchery, descent into chaos. ‘Real’ homosexual behaviour
reflected social hierarchy: between unequals (master/servant, schools, universities)
– ‘lifecycle homosexuality’. New gay subculture emerged in 17c Netherlands,
1690s London – also centres of religious toleration/plurality. Famine banished;
personal choice extended.
Change: the ‘Reformation of Manners’
Influence of Erasmus: civil government to regulate morality. English church courts
made church wedding the moment of marriage: bastardy rate fell after 1600 (though
principle remained: per verba de presenti). Same e.g. in Catholic Spain; Trent
ended clandestine marriage. Licensed brothels closed: Southwark 1546, Paris
1561, Rome 1555, 1566, Nuremberg 1562. Explanations? Disturbance of
authority by Reformation. Syphilis, c. 1490 (??from New World). Fear of physical
contact: baths also closed.
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015
Change: the witch-craze
1500+ (most 1550-1650) c. 40,000 people died, mostly women. Why?
Professionalisation of medicine (i.e. men in charge)? Old women outlived male
protectors. Elite interest: Malleus Maleficarum (1487): women disordered.
Reformation (and syphilis?) encouraged paranoia; ?enforcement of celibacy brought
Catholic clergy new worries about sexuality. Small polities worst affected (e.g.
Catholic prince-bishoprics, Münster, Bamberg, Wurzburg): centralised legal systems
encouraged moderation. England c.300-1000 deaths: no torture in English legal
system (contrast Protestant Scotland - c.1600 deaths); fewer appeals to diabolic
pact idea in England, more on acts of harm (maleficium). Elite lost interest c. 1650,
before general population. Salem (Massachusetts) 1692 isolated and late.
Persisted in eastern Europe.
Change: role of the family
Late medieval rhetoric (cf. 15th cent. ‘family’ shrines of the Holy House at Loreto,
Walsingham). New role for Joseph; BV Mary became more passive.
Erasmus’s attack on celibacy (In praise of marriage), then Protestant clerical
marriage (cf. Bucer’s stress on Gen. 2, Eph. 5.23-24). Nature of institution not
changed by Fall. Companionship primary purpose, not procreation. Cranmer’s
1549 BCP marriage service: ‘mutual society, help and comfort, that the one ought to
have of the other, both in prosperity and adversity’. Protestantism put new
emphasis on layman’s role in leading family prayers.
Change: Protestants introduce divorce
Theological rationale: marriage not a sacrament. In England, despite mid-century
marital instability (William Parr, Marquis of Northampton, 1547-52), Reformatio
Legum killed off 1553, so no divorce in English church law. English law on affinity
simplified 1540, which limited annulment possibilities.
Change: female activism
 huge rise in Roman Catholic female religious orders: esp. Ursulines of Angela
Merici (1474-1539), recognised 1535. Efforts of Trent to enclose nuns. Ursulines
avoided over-regulation: no central organisation; Jesuits (themselves well-funded
by wealthy women) helped. Frontier work Quebec: Marie Martin (Marie de
l’Incarnation, 1599-1672) and Marie-Madeleine de la Peltrie 1603-71). Cf. Louise
de Mérillac (1591-1660), Vincent de Paul (1581-1660): Confraternity of Charity
(Filles Séculières).
 gender-skewed church attendance: first Netherlands, 17th cent.; English dissent
from 1650s; British North America late 17th cent.
A new age?
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679); John Locke (1632-1704): world desacralised.
Beginning of the end for patriarchy? ‘Gender-skewing’: churchgoing women were
now more religious, more ordered!
© Diarmaid MacCulloch 2015