Download 1. Tropes: metaphor, metonymy, antonomaisa Metaphor Metaphor is

1. Tropes: metaphor, metonymy, antonomaisa
Metaphor
Metaphor is the transference of the name of one object into another
object based on the similarity of the objects. Metaphor becomes a stylistic device
when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously
brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one
object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. The creator of
the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his
eye have something in common. Metaphor can be represented by any notional part
of speech:
(1)Ішов ночей повільний караван (Л. Костенко).
(1) The leaves were falling sorrowfully
Simple metaphor that expresses indiscrete notion may comprise a word,
word combination or sentence. Prolonged or sustained metaphor is metaphor that
consists of a number of sentences or even a paragraph. In this case the word that
has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph to
realize their figurative meaning and unfold the meaning of the first, initial
metaphor. Below there are examples of sustained metaphors that create visual
landscape images:
guinea pig – піддослідний кролик;
Заєць – безбілетний пасажир
shark – шахрай; акули бізнесу, акули пера
cuckoo – божевільний; зозуля – мати, що покидає дітей
chicken – hearted – боязливий; заячесерце
Metonymy
Metonymy is transference of the name of one object into another object,
based on the principle of contiguity of the two objects. Both associated objects do
not necessarily posses common semantic features but should have common
ground of existence in reality. Metonymy used in speech or in literary texts is
genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for
another, or one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression
produced by a chance feature of the thing, for example:
Miss Tox's hand trembled as she slipped it through Mr. Dombey's arm,
and felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocked hat and a Babylonian
colla. (Ch. Dickens.)
Antonomasia
Antonomasia (or renaming – перейменування) is a lexical stylistic
device that lies in the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a
word. In other words antonomasia is a kind of metaphor in which the nominal
meaning of a proper noun is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical
meaning of a common noun acquires the new nominal component. As most
stylistic devices antonomasia may assume different shapes. The first type of
antonomasia is the usage of proper noun in the function of a common one. In the
following sentence a proper noun Mary has lost its nominal meaning and turned
into a common noun denoting any female:
e.g. He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary shortly after she
arrived
something… (Th. Dreiser).
2. Tropes: epithet, oxymoron, antithesis
Epithet
Epithet is a figurative, expressive attribute that emphasizes the most
prominent, leading feature of a thing or phenomenon. The term epithet originated
from the Creek phrase “epiteton onoma” which meant an additional name,
borrowed, artificial, extra or supplementary nomination, for indeed the function of
epithet is not only to describe the object but also to add new features to it. The
structure and semantics of epithets are extremely variable. From semantic point of
view epithets are fixed (or associated), effective (or emotional proper) and
figurative (transferred or unassociated). Fixed epithets are epithets which due to
the long and frequent usage have become inseparable unities, fusions that are
deeply rooted in folk poetic traditions and that remain in modern language
unchanged: dark forest, deep ocean, true love, merry Christmas, dead silence, a
trembling maiden, fairy lady, буйний вітер
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of words which are semantically different.
As a result of such combination the object under description obtains
characteristics contrary to its nature. Oxymoron as a combination of semantically
different notions helps to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectal unity. As a rule one of the two
members of oxymoron illuminates the feature which is universally observed and
acknowledged, while the other one offers a purely subjective, individual
perception of the object. Oxymoron makes the reader or hearer to reinterpret
the sense of the utterance which is at the same time striking, unpredictable
and truthful, revealing the essence of the object in question and pointing out
its complicated nature. The main structural pattern of oxymoron is Adjective
+ Noun, Adverb + Adjective or Verb + Adverb, so it easy to believe that the
subjective part of the oxymoron is embodied in the epithet-attribute. Thus the
oxymoron is very often associated with epithet, because the latter also
proceeds from the foregrounding of emotive meaning.
E.g. hot snow, pleasantly ugly, to cry silently, to shout mutely,
солодкий сум,
холодний жар, etc.
Oxymoron is the sort of playful and witty effect of language
usage, it seldom becomes trite. A few frequently used oxymorons, all of
them showing a high degree of the speaker’s emotional involvement in the
situation, as in damn nice, awfully pretty, жахливо гарний, страшенно
цікавий, are the rare examples of speech oxymoron. Oxymoron is a
powerful means of humour and satire:
Authors sometimes use oxymoron in titles in order to catch
readers’ attention and to emphasize the complexity of the described notion:
Мертві душі (М.Гоголь),
Antithesis
Antithesis is another figure of contrast that stands close to
oxymoron. The major difference between them is structural: oxymoron is
realized through a single word combination or a sentence, while antithesis is
a confrontation of at least two separate phrases or sentences semantically
opposite:
oxymoron – wise foolishness
antithesis – the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness.
The essence of antithesis lies in the intentional emphasizing of
two contradictory but logically and emotionally closely connected notions,
phenomena, objects, situations, events, ideas, images. Antithesis makes the
reader’s or hearer’s impression stronger and the utterance more convincing
and may be used alongside with the comparison.
e.g. (1) I had walked into that reading-room a happy, healthy
man. I crawled out a
decrepit wreck (J.K. Jerome).
Syntactic structures that express the meaning of antithesis are
quite various:
- a single extended sentence;
- a composite sentence;
- a paragraph or even chain of paragraphs.
The main lexical means of antithesis formation are antonyms
which represent complex and contradictory nature of the world (heaven –
hell, sky – earth, light – dark, up – down, good – evil, joy – sorrow,
3. The problem of context in stylistics. Contextual meaning
Text is a highly organized structure the elements of which have
value not only as separate entities but also in their interrelations with other
elements both inside and outside the text. In general sense context can be
defined as an environment of a linguistic unit that facilitate the realization of
certain properties of this unit. Two types of context are generally
differentiated: linguistic and extra linguistic, the latter being understood as a
situation of communication. Situational C can be
1. Single: some utterances are meaningful only in one single
context and meaningless in all the other,
e.g.: Pooh's found the North Pole, said Christopher Robin. Isn't
that lovely… They stuck the pole in the ground and Christopher Robin tied a
massage on to it: "North Pole discovered by Pooh"
2. Typical: some utterances that may even violate the norms of
the literary language can be meaningful only under certain conditions.
3. Social and historic.
Linguistic context is a set of conditions in which the meaning of
language unit is unambiguously realized: e.g. the hand of the clock, a piece
for four hands, a farm hand. The main function of the linguistic context is to
eliminate the polysemy of the word. Sometimes the linguistic context causes
the phenomenon of desemantisation (take offence, take charge, take medicine,
take notice) However in certain contexts the reverse process can be
observed – so called hypersemantisation, the enrichment of the language
unit meaning, so that the word acquires alongside with its direct meaning
transferred meaning. The context that extends the meaning of the language unit is
called stylistic context.
Stylistic macro context – super phrasal unity : Once upon a time ago ,
about last Friday, Winnie the Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name
of Sanders. What does "under the name mean?" asked Christopher Robin. "It
means he has the name over the door in gold letters and lived under it". But within
the domain of stylistic contexts of a great number of Ukrainian writers and poets it
is transformed into a system of complex images:
The notion of stylistic context is closely connected with the effect of
unexpectedness and anticlimax. An unpredicted language unit appearing within
the stylistic context against the reader’s expectations breaks the even flow of the
text, attracts reader’s attention and becomes foregrounded.
e.g. No sun – no moon!
No morn – no noon –
No dawn – no dusk
4.Meaning from a stylistic point of view. Stylistic devices based on the
polysemantic effect.
Meaning – the set of semantic features which make up the semantic
structure of the word and can be discovered only in the process of linguistic
analysis. Each time, the word is used in speech one or more semantic features
from its semantic structure are being realized to make up sense. We should study
the linguistic situation where units we want to define are.
Sense - the minimum variable semantic content of a word in speech,
while meaning is assumed to be a minimal invariant semantic content. When we
speak about polysemy, we mean that word can be used in different senses when
distinctive semantic components in meaning are realized in speech they make up
the sense of the word.
The two main types of word-meaning are the grammatical and
the lexical meanings found in all words. The interrelation of these two types of
meaning may be different in different groups of words.
Grammatical meaning – the component of meaning recurrent in
identical sets of individual forms of different words, as, e.g., the tense meaning in
the word-forms of verbs (asked, thought, walked, etc.) or the case meaning in the
word-forms of various nouns (girl’s, boy’s, night’s, etc.).
Lexical meaning - component of meaning proper to the word as a
linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word, e.g. the same semantic
component denoting the process of movement.
Lexical
meaning
is
viewed
as
possessing denotational and connotational components.
The denotational component is actually what makes communication
possible.
Users of a language cannot have any knowledge or thought of the
objects or phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is
ultimately embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning for all
speakers
of
that
language,
that
is
the denotational component .The connotational component comprises the
stylistic reference and the emotive charge proper to the word as a linguistic unit in
the given language system.
Polysemy exists only in language not in speech. Polysemy – total sum
of many contexts in which a word may occur, permits us to observe and record
cases of identical senses, cases that differ in sense. Monosemantic words, i.e.
words having only one meaning are comparatively few in number, these are
mainly scientific terms, such -as hydrogen, molecule and the like. The bulk of
English words are polysemantic, that is to say possess more than one meaning.
The problem of polysemy is mainly the problem of interrelation and
interdependence of the various meanings of the same word.
Polysemy viewed diachronically is a historical change in the semantic
structure of the word resulting in disappearance of some meanings (or) and in new
meanings being added to the ones already existing and also in the rearrangement
of these meanings in its semantic structure.
Polysemy viewed synchronically is understood as coexistence of the
various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period and the
arrangement of these meanings in the semantic structure of the word.
Zeugma – consists of combining unequal semantically incomparable
words or phrases. It is co –occurrence of syntactical connection of 2 or more
words with other unit. Zeugma is employed in humorous texts.
Він втратив майно і надію
Mary dropped a tear and her handkerchief.
Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression ‘play upon
words’. The semantic essence of the device is based on:
1. polysemy or homonymy: Visitor to a little boy: – Is your
mother engaged? – Engaged? She is already married;
2.similarity of pronunciation: John said to Pete at dinner: ‘Carry
on’. But Pete never ate carrion.
5.Syntactic stylistic devices based on the extinction of sentence model
(repetition, polysyndeton).
Repetition
Repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination,
phrase for two or more times in close succession. Skillfully used and justified
repetition never creates the redundancy of information. On the contrary the
additional stylistic meaning that arise as a result of repetition are
indispensable elements of emotional and artistic impact upon the reader or
listener. Repetition is powerful means of emphasis, besides it adds rhythm
and balance to the utterance.
According to the placewhich the repeated word occupies in the
sentence or text, repetition is classified into several groups. Ordinary
repetition. In ordinary repetition the repeated element has no definite place
in the utterance.
I wake up and I’m alone and I walk round Warley and I am
alone; and I talk with people and I am alone and I look at his face when I’m
home and it’s dead (J. Braine).
The reiterated element of the utterance may be supported by
introduction of other elements which specify and extend its meaning:
I don’t think Art heard. Pain, even slight pain, tends to isolate.
Pain such as he had to suffer, cuts the last links with society (S. Chaplin).
Successive repetition. Successive repetition is a string of closely
following each other reiterated units. This is the most emphatic type of
repetition, which signifies the peak of speaker’s emotions, or imparts the
greatest logical significance to the repeated element.
) She was screaming high a shrill scream that rose in the air
incisively like a gull’s shriek.» Put it back, put it back, put it back!” , the
scream seemed to say (W. Sansom).
Anaphora. Anaphora is the repetition of elements at the
beginning of each consecutive syntactic structure:
) And everywhere were people. People going into gates and
coming out of gates. People staggering and falling. People fighting and
cursing (P. Abrahams).
The main stylistic function of anaphora is to create a background
for nonrepeated units of the utterance or the text, to give it logical and/or
emotional emphasis and to underline its novelty.
Epiphora.
Epiphora is the repetition of the final elements of each
successive utterance.
The main stylistic function of epiphora is to foreground the final
elements of the
utterances.
Framing. In framing the initial element of the utterance is
repeated at the end of the utterance. Thus the syntactic structure resembles a
kind of a “frame”: between the repeated words or word combinations there
comes a middle part that explains and clarifies the idea.
Nothing ever happened in that little town, left behind by the
advance of civilization, nothing (S. Maugham).
Polysyndeton
The arrangement of sentence members, the completeness of its
structure necessarily involves various types of connection between sentence
components and between sentences. Polysyndeton is stylistically motivated
deliberate repetition of conjunctions or prepositions:
The raisins and almonds and figs and apples and oranges and
chocolates and sweets were now passed about the table (J. Joyce).
Polysyndeton performs both formal and semantic function in the
utterance. First of all, it shapes the rhythmical contour of the utterance and
has a definite aesthetic impact on the reader or listener. Consequently it is the
most frequent way to secure melody and rhyme in poetry or to impart rhythm,
emotional tension and solemnity to emotive prose:
(1) And then you came with those mournful lips.
And with you came the whole of the world’s tears,
And all the trouble of her labouring ships,
And all the trouble of her myriad years (J. Yeats).
6.Syntactic stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasmus, inversion. Rhetoric question.
Producing of two or more syntactic structures according to the same
syntactic pattern is known under the term parallelism. In parallelism both the
whole sentence or its part can be built according to the similar structural pattern:
(1) The wind blew faster. It dragged now at his coat, it blew its space
about him, it echoed silently a lonely spaciousness (W. Sansom).
Syntactic parallelism is widely spread in poetry and emotive prose. It
creates special rhythmical contour of the text, reinforces the semantic ties between
the utterances, increases the communicative, expressive and aesthetic value of the
successive utterances. Syntactic parallelism is one of the most favoured means of
logical and emotional intensification of the idea embodied in an utterance. It
makes speech persuasive, solemn and elevated and is a common feature of the
publicistic and oratory style.
Chiasmus
Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the
similarity of a syntactical pattern in two successive sentences or coordinate parts
of a sentence, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two
successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel
construction, the word order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared
with that of the other, as in:
(1) Gentlemen, a court is no better than each man of you sitting before
me on the jury. A court is only as sound as its jury, and a jury is onlyy as sound as
the men who make it up (H. Lee).
(2) Не говори, що знаєш, а знай, що говориш.
Inversion
Inversion is a syntactic phenomenon of the deliberate changing of
word order in the initial sentence model. Word order is a crucial syntactical
problem in many languages. In English it has peculiarities which have been
caused by the concrete and specific way the language has developed. The English
language has developed a fixed word order which in the great majority of cases
shows without fail what is the Subject of the sentence. This fixed word order is
Subject— Verb (Predicate) — Object (S—P—O).
This predominance of fixed word order makes conspicuous any change
in the structure of the sentence and inevitably calls forth a modification in the
stylistic meanings.
There are two types of inversion: grammatical and stylistic.
Grammatical inversion is aimed at the change of the communicative type of
sentence and has no stylistic value.
Stylistic inversion is aimed at logical or emotional intensification of a
certain sentence element. It attaches the additional emotional colouring to the
surface meaning of the utterance. It is always semantically and stylistically
motivated:
(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not (Ch.
Dickens).
(2) Rude am I in my speech...( W.Shakespeare).
Rhetoric question
Rhetoric question is an emotional statement or negation expressed in
the form of a question. Rhetoric question does not requires any answer or demand
any information but is used to emphasize the idea, to render speaker’s emotions or
to call the attention of the listener (reader) to the focus of the utterance. In fact the
communicative function of a rhetoric question is not to ask for unknown but to
involve the readers into the discussion or emotional experience, give them a clue
and make them to arrive at the conclusion themselves.
e.g. (1) How can what an Englishmen believes be a heresy? It is a
contradiction in terms (B. Show).
(2) Being your slave, what should I do but tend
Upon the hours and times of your desire (W. Shakespeare).
Rhetoric questions make an indispensable part of emotive prose, poetry
and oratorical and publicistic style. They elevate the style of the utterance, serve
as powerful means of emotional inducement, or on the contrary are effective tools
of irony, sarcasm and derision:
7. Graphical and phonetic stylistic devices.
Speaking about the inseparable unity of form and meaning of literary
work it is worth mentioning that its easthetic impact depends on phonetic and
graphical erangement of text elements and text as a whole. To create additional
information in a literary discourse sound instrumenting is often used alongside the
specific graphical representation. One of the most favoured graphical stylistic
device in contemporary advertising, mass media, and, above all, creative prose is
graphon. Graphon is intentional violation of graphical shape of a word or
word combination.
The main function of graphon is to supply information about the
speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional
condition, author’s sarcastic attitude to his character, etc.
butler Yellowplush – (impresses his listeners with the learned
words
pronouncing
them
as
“sellybrated”
instead
of
celebrated; ”benyviolent” (benevolent); illygitmit” (illegitimate )
(Thackeray)
Graphon, thus , individualizing the character’s speech, adds to
his plausibility, vividness, memorability. It is a very good device for
conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the
informality of the speech act.
This flavour of informality and authenticity brought grahon
popularity with
advertisers:
(1) Sooper Class Model – ad of car
(2) Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant
Graphical changes may reflect not only peculiarities of
pronunciation but are also used to convey the intensity of stress,
emphasizing and foregrounding the key words:
(1)Best jeans for this Jeaneration
(2)Наша вата – нова М’Якість
The graphical means of text imagery also include
all changes of the type(italics, capitalization), 
spacing or graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) , 
graphical representation of a line, etc. 
(1) Help! Help!HELP!
(2) Adieu you, old man, grey. I pity you, and I de-spise you (Ch.
Dickens)
1.Methods of lexicological studies. Contrastive analysis.
The process of ling. investigation may be subdivided into several
stages:
- observation: collection of the data;
- classification: orderly arrangement of the data obtained through
observation;
- generalisation: formulation of hypothesis, rules, laws; One of
the fundamental test of the validity [перевірка правильності] of the
generalisation is whether or not this generalisation is useful in making
predication.
Methods:
distributional analysis– is based upon the study of all possible
environments of a linguistic unit. The distribution of an element is the sum of
all environmens in which it occurs reletive to the positions of other elements.
The meaning of the word varies with the context. Distributional analysis is
most helpful for the analysis of the morphemic structure of words, the
combinability of the morphemes and for the analysis of free and stable wordcombinations.
transformational analysis in lex. investigation may be defined
as repartening of various distributional structures in order to discover
difference or sameness of meaning of particular distributional strucrure.
Word-groups of identical distributional strucrure when repartterned show
that the semantic relation between words and consequently the meaning may
be different. The rules of transform. anal. are rather strict. There are many
restriction both on syntactic and lexical levels. These are:
- permutation – the repattering provided that the basic
subordinate relationship between words and word-stems of the lex. units are
not change: ‘His work is excelent’ may be transformed into ‘his excelent
work’ or ‘the excellence of his work’
- replacement – the substitution of a component of the
distributional structre by a member of a certain strictly defined set of lex.
units. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb(he will
make a bad mistake & he wiil make a god teacheer) The sentences have
identical distributional structure but only in the second one the verb to
make can be substituted by to become . The fact of imposibility of identical
transformation of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of the
difference in their meaning.
- addition (expantion) may be illustrated by the application of the
procedure of addition to the classification of adjectives two groups: denoting
inherent and non-inherent qualities[1. John is happy. 2. John is tall. We add a
word- group in Moscow. We shall see that John is happy in Moscow has meaning
while the second one is senseless. That is accounted by the difference in the
meaning of adj. denoting inherent and non-inherent qualities.].
- delition – a procedure which shows wheather one of the words is
semantically subordinated to the other. [the word-group ‘red flowers’ may be
transformed into ‘flowers’ without making the it senseless]
compotential analysis- aims at revealing and organising the semantic
components of the words. It is used for various purposes:
- a detailed comparison of meaning;
- providing a more adequate basis for translation equivalences;
- the judjing of semantic combinability as an important feature of style;
In this analysis we proceed from the assumption that th smallest unit of
meaning are semes.
statistical analysis : Statistics describes how things are on the average.
Statistic approach is most helpful when we have large masses ofdata to analyse. A
single observation may not be reliable? whereas a correctly executed statistical
study shows tends, the most typical properties and correlations.
IC’s analysis: the aim of IC’s is to segment a set of lexical units into
two maximally independent sequences or ICs. Successive segmentation results in
Ultimate Constituents, which means that further segmentation is imposible for no
meaning can be found. This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in
discovering the derivational structure of words.
contrastive analysis The contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the
features of sameness and difference in lexical meanings and semantic structures of
correlated words in different languages. The contrastive analysis can be canted out
at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar (morphology and syntax) and lexis
(vocabulary).
2. Morphological structure of English and Ukrainian words. Types of morphemes.
IC analysis the aim of IC’s is to segment a set of lexical units into two
maximally independent sequences or ICs. Successive segmentation results in
Ultimate Constituents, which means that further segmentation is imposible for no
meaning can be found. This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in
discovering the derivational structure of words. Morphemic analysis. An example
of mor analysis by immediate constituent analysis: ungentlemanly→ungentlemanly→gentleman-ly→gentle-man→gent-le. Morphemes are subdivided
into: root & affixes. Affixes are subdivided into: derivational & functional. The
stem expresses the lexical meaning & in many cases it is also the root. Root is a
semantic core. Root & stem may coincide (book). Stems may be: =root stem
(work)=derived stem (beautiful)=compound stem (long-haired). Morphemes may
be:=bound morphemes (occur as part of words [conceive, receive])==free
(function as a word (friend))==semi-bound (function as an affixes & words [man,
after]). Functional affixes convey gram meaning, they build diff forms of 1 & the
same word (sons, son’s). Derivational affixes supply root with components of
lexical meaning. Differences between inflectional & derivational affixes - inf aff
don’t change the part of speech or the type of meaning (book-books); der aff
change the type of meaning of the form to which they apply & therefore create a
new word (season-seasonal). inf aff are combined with the stem after the der aff,
der aff are combined with the stem before the inf aff. (neighbor [root] – hood [der
aff] – s [inf aff]). inf aff has to do with productivity, they may combine with stems
of dif categories; der aff apply to restricted classes of stems (-ize+adj=verb).
Difference between the prefixes & suffixes: prefixes never change the part of
speech.
3 Principal types of word-formation in E and in U
Word formation is the process of creating new words from the material
you already have.
Affixation- adding word building affixes to stems.
Affixation includes:
1.Prefixation (after-noon, co-operate)
2.Suffixation (act-or, poet-ry, exist-ence)
Compounding- Word produced by combining two or more stems,
which occur in language as free forms - classroom, timetable, weekend, sportsman,
saleswoman.
Reduplication- doubling a stem. bye-bye, goody-goody.
Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combination of a verb and adverb or a verb and
preposition (or verb with both adverb and preposition).
Conversion- is a special type of affixless derivation where a
newly-formed word acquires a paradigm and syntactic functions different
from those of the original word.
N -> V, V -> N, A -> V
Молода, finger-to finger, a walk-to walk
Substantivation -Process in which adjectives acquire the
paradigm and syntactic functions of nouns - an official,the official, officials,
our officials
Shortening
There exist two main ways of shortening:
-contraction (clipping) Nick (<Nickolas)
-abbreviation (initial shortening) UNO
Back-formation (reversion) - the derivation of new words by
means of subtracting a suffix or other element resembling it – sculptor <
sculpt, action < act.
Blending-Formation of new lexical units by means of merging
fragments of words into one new word – smog – smoke+fog, drunch drinks+lunch, хилитати.
Sound interchange (gradation) - Words belonging to different
parts of speech may be differentiated due to the sound interchange in the roof
– food(n)::feed(v), gold(n)::gild(v)
4. Compounding in English and Ukrainian. Types of compounds. Analysis in
terms of syntactic structure.
Compounding is one of the most productive means of wordformation both in En and Ukr. Compound – lexical unit consisting of more
than one stem and functioning as a single word. 2 ways of forming: a) by the
juxtaposition of the determing and the determined parts; b) with the help of
the linking/interfixal o, e, s in Eng and o, e/є, у in Ukr. The largest group of
compounds formed through the juxtaposition of free root/stem words in Eng:
mankind, peace-loving, nowadays. Eng: compounds with prepositions and
conjunctions used as connectors of different roots/stems often referred to as
whole phrases: commander-in-chief, out-of-date. Ukrainian has only a few
compound adverbs of its own and some nouns of foreign origin of this type:
де-не-де, Ростов-на-Дону, Франкфурт-на-Майні. Ukr has many composite
words, which are formed with help of the linking elements (-и, -й):
крутиголовка, перекотиполе, мати-й-мачуха. Eng: Anglo-Saxon, electrotherapy. Several Ukrainian family names and geografical names have been
formed from word-groups or sentences as well: Непийпиво, Вишгород,
Крутояри. Compounding by juxtaposition of free word is considerably less
productive in Ukrainian: вагон-ресторан, медик-хірург, хто-небудь. Close
to this - compound nouns and verbs of coordinate nature: хліб-сіль. In Ukr:
noun-compounds and adj-compounds: subject+action (e.g. водоспад, sunrise,
headache, neboshyl, padolyst)object+action (e.g. dorohovkaz, dushogub,
losorub,
shareholer,
dishwasher,
pushbutton,
perekotypole,
vernydub)action+adverbial (e.g. pishohid, writing-paper, babysitter,
handwriting).
5. Semantic structure of English and Ukrainian words. Types of
semantic change
Words of expessing identical concepts may have different
semantic str in different la-s.
(Bloomfield, functional aproach) Meaning- is the situation in
which the w is uttered
Distinguish denotative meaning-espresses notional content of a w.
and connotative meaning –emotional content of the word. Words have
semantic features: animate/inanimate, male/female, human/noon-human.
This approach gives us the ability to predict what nouns can be used in what
positions. (The .. is reading a book)
Words have semantic roles as well realized on the sentence level.
A boy kicked the ball: the boy-agent, the ball-theme. If the agent uses another
entity in performing an action then this entity performes the role of an
instrument.
The definition of lexical meaning has been attempted more than
once in accordance with the main principles of different linguistic schools.
However, at present there is no universally accepted definition of meaning or
rather a definition reflecting all the basic characteristic features of meaning
and being at the same time operational.Thus, meaning is considered to be one
of the most ambiguous and controversial terms in the linguistic theory. This
complex phenomenon has been studied by many outstanding linguists. The
suggested approaches can be grouped as follows:
§
§
§
Analytical or referential definition of meaning
Functional or contextual def. of meaning
Operational or information- oriented def. of
meaning.
The followers of Ferdinand de Saussure consider meaning to be the
relation between the object or notion named, and the name itself (referential
approach).
The essential feature of referential approach is that it distinguished
between three components: the sound form, the concept and the actual referent
(the part or aspect of reality). The best known referential model of meaning is the
so-called basic triangle. This triangle with some variations underlines the semantic
system of this school:
…
Polysemy is a linguistic phenomenon occurring when one and the
same word can be used in two or more different senses. It’s a semantic universal
inherent in the fundamental structure of language. Polysemy is widespread both in
English and Ukrainian but is more characteristic for English. The frequency of
polysemy depends not only on purely linguistic factors but on cultural progress as
well. Both in Ukr. and Engl. the main source of the development of regular
polysemy metaphoric and metonymic transference of meaning. Polysemy exists
only in the level of language not in speech.
Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected
meanings. One of them is the main (central) meaning, whereas the rest are
associated (marginal) meanings. Associated meanings of the word become evident
in certain lexical and grammatical contexts. Polysemantic words constitute the
bulk of the English vocabulary. E.g. face (n.) 1. the front of the head /the main
meaning/. 2. the expression of the countenance. 3. the main or front surface. 4. the
surface that is marked, as of a clock. 5. appearance; outward aspect. 6. dignity,
self-respect /
Metaphor
The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means
transference of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient
Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of
meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process
in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.
It’s the process when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas,
actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of
the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of
these properties. Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the
metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye
have something in common.
Due to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating
images. An image is a sensory perception of an abstract notion already existing in
the mind. Consequently, to create an image means to bring a phenomenon from
the highly abstract to the essentially concrete.
The identification is most clearly observed when the metaphor is
embodied either in an attributive word, as in pearly teeth, voiceless sounds, or in
a predicative word-combination.
Metaphors can be classified according to their degree of
unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are
quiteunpredictable, are calledgenuine. Those which are commonly used in speech
and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of
language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is
apparent. (Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e.
speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system i.e.
language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.(ex.:
'a ray of hope' ' floods of tears', 'a storm of indignation', 'a flight of fancy', 'a
gleam of mirth', 'a shadow of a smile')
Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the
dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on
some kind of association connecting The two concepts which these meanings
represent.
Thus, the wordcrown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for
'the drink in contains’,
woolsack for ' the Chancellor of the Exchequer who sits on it hand is
used for a worker; the cradle stands for infancy, earliest stages, place of origin,
and thegrave stands for death.
Metonymy used in language-inaction, i.e. contextual metonymy, is
genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for
another, or one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression
produced by a chance feature of the thing
Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are
deciphered. In the process of disclosing the meaning implied in metaphor,
one image excludes the other, that is, the metaphor 'lamp’ in the 'sky lamp of
the night', when deciphered, means the moon, and though there is a definite
interplay of meanings, we perceive only one object, the moon, this is not the
case with metonymy. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind,
does not exclude the other. (Moustache)
Many attempts have been made to pin-point the types of relation
which metonymy is based on. Among them the following are most common:
1. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. In this case
the thing becomes a symbol of the notion, as in
n
The camp, the pulpit and (lie law For rich men 's sons are free. "
(Shelley)/
2. The container instead of the thing contained: The hall
applauded.
3. The relation of proximity, as in: "The round game table was
boisterous and happy. " (Dickens)
4. The material instead of the thing made of it, as in: "The
marble spoke. "
5. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action
instead of the action or the doer himself, as in:"As the sword is the worst
argument that can he used, so should if he the last”.
6. Vocabulary as a system. Semantic group of words: synonym,
antonyms, homonyms.
We know that there is nothing accidental about the vocabulary of
the language. By the vocabulary of a language is understood the total sum of
its words. Another term for the same is the stock of words. Each word is a
small unit within a vast, efficient and perfectly balanced system. But we do
not know why it possesses these qualities, nor do we know much about the
processes by which it has acquired them.
Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most
nearly alike or exactly the same in the meaning. There are a lot of synonyms
in modern languages and slight differences in their meaning and function
justify their existence.
Among synonyms we find words which have the same meaning
but can be used in different senses in definite contexts. (There is a difference:
sailor – mariner). Words must harmonize with the context as appropriate to
the linguistic situation. The synonyms are not always interchangeable. As to
the origin of synonyms we distinguish:
a) synonyms which originate from the native element and denote
different shades of meaning: ex.: fast, speedy, swift; handsome, pretty,
lovely;сміливий, хоробрий, мужній, відважний.
b) synonyms created through the adoption of words from dialogs
(bairn Scot.- girl; charm - glamour).
c)
synonyms which own their origin to follow
borrowing ???????: (begin – commence; heaven - sky)
d) synonymy connected with the non-literal figurative use of
words (star-gazer = dreamer)
e) synonymy connected with euphemisms and vulgarisms (drunk
- elevated)
Absolute synonyms very rare – лінгвістика, мовознавство.
Antonyms – words opposite to homonyms. Antonyms are often
helpful and very valuable in defining the exact meaning of the given word
and its synonyms. The opposites of words do not always suggest themselves
immediately.
Antonyms are words that have directly opposite meanings are
called antonyms. Antonyms fall into two main groups:
1) Root antonyms (those which are of different roots), e.g. long ::
short, quickly :: slowly, up :: down, love :: hatred, to start:: to finish, etc.
2) Affixal antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence
express semantic opposition), e.g. hopeful:: hopeless, faulty:: faultless,
happy:: unhappy, appear :: disappear, regular :: irregular, etc.
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their
lexico-semantic variants: a dull knife:: a sharp knife, a dull boy :: a bright
boy, a dull novel:: a thrilling novel, etc.
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning,
identical both in sound and in spelling or only in sound or spelling. In spelling –
homographs (light, n – light, adj.), in sound – homophones (ex.: see – sea, meat –
meet, some - sum)
Words identical in form but quite different in their meaning and
distribution are called homonyms.
The traditional formal classification of homonyms is as follows:
I. Absolute homonyms which are identical both in sound and spelling,
e.g. ball (м'яч) :: ball (бал); bore (свердлити):: bore (нудна людина); hail
(град) :: hail (окликати)
II. Partial homonyms subdivided into:Homographs which are
identical in spelling but different in sound, e.g.
bow /bou/ (лук) :: bow /bau/ (ніс корабля); lead /led/ (свинець) ::
lead /li:d/ (вести); polish /polif/ (глянсувати):: Polish /'poulif/ (польський), etc.
1)Homophones which are identical in sound but different in spelling,
e.g. key (ключ):: quay (набережна); fir (ялина) :: fur (хутро); sow (сіяти) :: sew
(шити), etc.
Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case
one should distinguish between:
1) Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g.
club n. (клуб):: club n. (кийок); bear v. (нести):: bear v. (терпіти); plane n.
(літак) :: plain n. (рівнина); light а. (легкий) :: light а. (світлий), etc.
2)Grammatical homonyms which belong to different parts of speech,
e.g. horse n. (кінь):: hoarse а. (хрипкий); row v. (гребти) :: row n. (ряд);
weathern. (погода):: whether conj. (чи), etc.
3) Homoforms which are identical only in some of their paradigm
constituents, e.g. bore n.:: bore (Past Ind. of bear); scent n.:: sent (Past Ind. and
p.p. of send); seize v.:: /he/sees (Pr. Ind., 3d p. sing, of see), etc.
From the viewpoint of their origin, homonyms are divided into
etymological and historical.
Etymological homonyms are words of different origin. Their formal
coincidence is the result of various factors: phonetical changes in native and
borrowed words, changes in spelling, etc.
E.g. O.F. bas > M.E. base І (підлий)
L. basis > OE. base > M.E.base II (основа, підвалина)
O.E. mal > M.E. mole І (родимка)
O.E. mol > Mid.E. molle > M.E. mole II (кріт)
Historical homonyms are those which result from disintegration
(split) of polysemy. At present there is not any connection between their meanings,
though they can be traced back to the same etymological source, e.g. nail
(ніготь):: nail (цвях) < O.E. naeg(e)l; beam (промінь):: beam (балка, бантина)
< O.E. beam.
7. Phraseological units: characteristic feature and principles of classification
Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a
completely or partially transferred meaning.
There exist several different classifications of phraseological units
based on different principles.
According to the classification based on the semantic principle English
phraseological units fall into the following classes:
1. Fusions - completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups, e.g. to
show
the white feather ("to betray one's cowardice"), to pull smb.'s leg ("to
deceive
smb."), to bell the cat ("to take a risk for the good of others"), red tape
("bureaucratic delays"), a white elephant ("a present one can't get rid
of), half
seas over ("drunk"), once in a blue moon ("hardly at all" or "hardly
ever"), etc.
2. Unities - metaphorically motivated idioms, e.g. to make a mountain
out
of a molehill ("to become excited about trifles"), to play second fiddle
("to
have a lower or less important position"), to wash one's dirty linen in
public
("to tell people about one's hidden sins and faults"), a snake in the
grass ("a
person with harmful intentions"; "a hidden enemy"), etc.
3. Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) - wordgroups with
the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly
limited, e.g. to
make friends (but not * to do friends or * to make comrades), to
bear a grudge,
to break silence, to make sure, to take into account, unconditional
surrender,
ways and means, now and then, etc.
4. Phraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic
familiar quotations (still water runs deep = ‘тиха вода греблю рве’).
Phraseological units belonging to Classes 1-5 may be classified in
accordance with their structure and their ability to perform the same
syntactical functions as parts of speech. The classification based on the
structural principles distinguishes phraseological units into the following
classes:
1.Verbal, e.g. to ride the high horse, to lose one's head, to drop a
brick, to take the bull by the horns, to take a fancy, etc.
2.Substantive, e.g. a grass widow, a drop in the bucket, a bull in
a china shop, the apple of discord, a maiden speech, etc.
3.Adjectival, e.g. high and mighty, high and dry, fair and square,
as dead as a door nail, as busy as a bee, etc.
4.Adverbial, e.g. from head to foot, by hook or by crook, by a
long chalk, as the crow flies, like a shot, in a trice, etc.
5.Interjectional, e.g. good heavens!, sakes alive!, by George!,
my eye!, holy smoke!, goodness gracious!
Phraseological units differ in their functions in the acts of
communication and therefore fall into four classes:
1.Nominative phraseological units of various patterns which
correlate with words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. a dark
horse, ships that pass in the night, quick on the trigger, to get a bee in one's
bonnet, at the back of one's mind, when pigs fly, etc.
2.Communicative phraseological units represented by
proverbs and sayings, e.g. the pot cannot call the kettle black; the race is
got by running; no joy without alloy; all one's geese are swans, etc.
3.Nominative-communicative phraseological units which
include nominative verbal idioms that can be transformed into a
sentence (communicative) structure when the verb is used in the Passive
Voice, e.g. to put the cart before the horse - the cart was put before the
horse; to catch smb. with chaff- smb. was caught with chaff; to break the ice
- the ice is broken, etc.
4.Pragmatic phraseological units (interjectional idioms and
response phrases; cf. responsives in Part 4), e.g. My aunt!; Bless your
heart!; By ginger!; Does your mother know you're out?; The answer's a
lemon, etc.
1. Noun and its grammar categories in English and Ukrainian.
The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and
Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or
"thingness".
Paradigmatic classes of nouns:
1) Common nouns
- Concrete (tree, house, book, etc.)
- Abstract (fear, knowledge, news, etc.)
- Collective (cattle, family, government, etc.)
- Names of materials (air, snow, iron, etc.)
- Class nouns (bird, flower, cat, etc.)
2) Proper names
- Names/nicknames of people, nationals (Nelly, English,
англійці, etc.)
- Family names (Adams, Byron, Newton, etc.)
- Geographical names (Alaska, Chicago, the Black Sea, etc.)
- Names of companies, newspapers, etc. (Ford, Daily
Telegraph, etc.)
The category of number is a binomic opposition: singular
opposed to plural. Plural is formed in Eng by ending -s: [s], [z], [iz]. In Ukr
each declension of nouns has another ending. Eng: irregularity can be
observed in compounds (passer-by => passers-by, take-off => take-offs).
Allomorphic features: sound interchange (foot => feet); same forms (sheep, deer);
borrowed noun inflexions (stimulus => stimuli, phenomenon => phenomena).
Allomorphic in Ukr is dual number (двоїна) in connection with 2, 3 and 4 (берег–
береги– береги). Peculiarities of Eng category of number: 1) similar form for
singular and plural; 2) different meanings (manner = спосіб, manners =
поведінка); 3) different meanings of two plural forms (brothers vs. brethren); 4)
plural form – singular meaning (news, linguistics, measles, etc.). In both
languages only those nouns which are countable can be combined with cardinal
numerals. Those nouns which are uncountable have as a rule a singular forms: 1)
collective (humanity = людство); 2) substance or mass (glass = скло); 3) abstract
(health = здоров’я). Some nouns are used only in plural: names of objects, the
structure of which possesses plurality (trousers). The nouns can express the
category of number differently (гроші = money, дріжджі = yeast, clothes = одяг).
The category of case: In Ukr a noun has a very complicated system of
declension. The system is made up in the opposition of 6 or 7 cases: nominative,
genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. In Eng the
category of case is represented through the binomic opposition of the common and
possessive case. The case of a noun is a form of a noun expressing interrelation
between it and another noun, pronoun or verb.
The category of gender: In Ukr all the nouns without exception
irrespective of the fact whether they denote living being or lifeless object possess
the category of gender: masculine, feminine and neuter. In modern Eng there is no
division of nouns ac. to gender. It can be expressed only by suffixes -ess, -ine, -ist,
-er/or: widower, actress, heroine. In Ukr the category of gender is expressed by
zero and marked inflexions; by means of modifying word (наш, наше, цей,
такий, гарний, etc.). Possessive pronouns may sometimes be used in Eng to
indicate the extralingual category of sex: that actress and her voice
2. Contrastive analysis of pronoun as a part of speech.
The pronoun as a part of speech correlates in Eng and Ukr with the
following parts of speech as their substitutes: 1) with nouns (he, she); 2) with
adjectives (his, her); 3) with numerals when they denote generalizing quantity
(some, much, few). Their Ukr equivalents кілька, декілька, кільканадцять,
however, belong to indefinite cardinal numerals.
Classes of pronouns:
·
Personal (особові): I, he, she, it, we, you, they; я, ти, він, вона,
воно, ми, ви, вони;
·
Possessive (присвійні): my, his, her, its, our, your, their, mine,
hers, yours, ours; мій, твій, її, наше, ваше, ваш, їхня, їхнє, їхній;
·
Reflexive (зворотні): myself, himself, itself, yourself, yourselves,
ourselves; себе, собі, собою;
·
Demonstrative (вказівні): this, that, such a, same; цей, той, ті,
тойсамий, такийсамий;
·
Interrogative (питальні): who, whose, what, which, how much;
хто, що, який, котрий, якісаме, хтосаме;
·
Relative (відносні): who, whose, what, which; хто, що, який,
чий, котрий, чиї, чиїх;
·
Indefinite (неозначені): each, all, every, some, any; дехто,
дещо, хтось, щось, будь-хто, казна-що;
·
Negative (заперечні): no, nobody, none, nothing, neither; ніхто,
ніщо, ніякий, нічий, ніскільки;
·
Reciprocal (взаємні): each other, one another; одинодного;
Some grammarians distinguish also:
·
Generalizing: all, each, every, both, either;
·
Distinguishing (видільні): other, another;
·
Indefinite-personal: one;
·
Defining (означальні): весь, всякий, сам, кожний, інший;
·
Strengthening: myself.
Ac. to the morphological structure: simple, complex and compound.
There are no derivative pronouns, since affixation is not used to form pronouns in
both languages.
Grammar categories of pronouns: The category of number: Eng:
demonstrative, distinguishing, reflexive, strengthening; Ukr: possessive,
demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, negative, defining. Those Ukr have also
the category of gender, absolutely missing in Eng. The category of case in Eng
pronouns is expressed unequally: some have common and possessive cases
(indefinite, reciprocal, distinguishing, indefinite-personal). The rest have
nominative and objective cases (personal, interrogative, relative). In Ukr
pronouns have the same 6 cases as nouns, but similar to numerals they don’t
have the common system of declinations. They are characterized by
supletivism by their declension (the absence of stable stem to which case
endings are added).
3. Contrastive analysis of English and Ukrainian verb. The category of
the verb.
The verb has the largest number of features in common in Eng
and Ukr. They include the general implicit meaning of the verb, which serves
to convey different kinds of activity (go, read), processes (grow), the inner
state of a person (feel, bother), possession (have), etc. The verb generally
functions as a predicate in the sentence. The infinitive, the gerund and the
participle are also three systems within the verbids. The Ukrainian verb
includes the conjugated verb forms – the verbs and particles and nonconjugated verb forms – infinitives, dijepryslivnyky, and forms ending with
–но,-то(завдання виконано, лист написано).
The verb as a part of speech is characterized by the following
properties in English and Ukrainian:
the lexico-grammatical meaning of action/process in both
languages.
Typical ste-building elements,such suffixes –ize,-en,-ify,
the prefixes re-, under-, over-, super-, sub-, mis-, un- in English language; in
Ukrainian suffixes –ти, -ати(перечитувати, пересилювати)
Grammatical categories: out of the six categories in
English (person, number, mood, aspect, tense, voice ) and in Ukrainian,
grammatical categories of the verb are closely connected with its meaning
and its syntactic function. The category of aspect and voice (категорії виду і
стану)are characteristic of all verb forms. The category of mood(категорія
способу) is characteristic of verbs that can be conjugated(читає, читай,
читав би), the category of tense – of the indicative mood verbs(читає-читавчитатиме), the category of person – of the imperative and indicative mood
verbs(читаєш- читаєте- читай -читайте), the category of number – of all
verb forms that can be conjugated.
Its typical combinability: a verb can be associated with
nouns denoting the doer and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb.
Its typical syntactic function of the predicate. The verbids
have other functions, but they are secondary predicates in secondary
predication structures.
4. Non-finite forms of the verb in English and Ukrainian.
Non-finite forms of the verb can be used only as a nominal part of
a compound predicate and perform functions of other parts of a sentence.
The common verbal form is infinitive (the indefinite form of the verb), Eng
possesses peculiar verbal form – the gerund, which doesn’t have the
equivalent in Ukr; in Eng there is participle, whereas in Ukr –
дієприкметник and дієприслівник.
The Eng infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier "to" (to
come, to be asked), whereas the Ukr infinitive is characterised by the suffixes
-ти, -ть, -тись, -тися (бігти, носитися, їхать). Specifically Ukr is the
diminutive infinitive formed by combined suffixes: спатки, спатоньки,
їстоньки.
Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the
infinitive and the participle. The infinitive in Ukr has no perfect (perfective)
passive form, no continuous aspect form, no perfect active and perfect
passive forms of the Participle that are pertained to Eng. Cf. to have slept, to
be sleeping, to have been seen; having been asked/having asked, etc.
The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in
Eng and Ukr respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way.
The gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics, the former being those
of tense and voice (asking — being asked) and the ability of taking an
objective complement: I like reading books, as well as the ability of being
modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him. The noun
characteristics of the gerund: its functions in the sentence as subject, object,
the predicative part, the attribute, and as an adverbial modifier of manner.
For example, as subject and predicative: Deciding is acting. As object: He
won't stand beating. As an attribute: She found an opportunity of taking him
away. As adverbial modifiers:The rain poured down without ceasing. The
gerund can also be a complex subject, a complex object and other parts of the
sentence (cf. His being ill is unknown to me. That was his being ill that spoiled
everything. I know nothing of his being ill).
The Ukr diyepryslivnyk remains an indeclinable verbal form. The
diyepryslivnyk may be formed from the present stem of the verb or from the
infinitive of both the transitive and intransitive verbs. The imperfective (present)
diyepryslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first
verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи;
працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи.
Perfective (past) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitival stems
with the help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the
suffix -вши that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which
end in a consonant: донісши; привізши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a
vowel, the suffix -вши is added: здолавши; побачивши.
The semantic and functional equivalents to the imperfective (present)
and perfective (past) diyepryslivnyks in English are indefinite or perfect
participles (both active and passive) performing the functions of the adverbial
modifiers of time: "...while working so hard he needed sea air"; or attending
circumstances: Clara sat in the cool parlour reading.; the adverbial modifiers of
cause: "Being tired he thought of sleep."; and that of result: ...having seen all that
was to be seen he came out., etc.
The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence
generally coincide in both languages, though Ukr participles have gender, number
and case distinctions, which are lost by their Eng corresponding equivalent verbals.
Cf. gender and number categories: працюючий, працююча, працююче (колесо);
number and case: працюючого, працюючому, працюючим.
5. Functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian.
The number of functionals in the contrasted languages is practically the
same, the only exception being the article in English. 1) modal words (and modal
phrases); 2) the preposition; 3) the conjunction; 4) the particle; 5) the interjection.
Modal words: meaning of "modality", used to express the speaker's
judgement concerning the action/event or object in the sentence (certainly, indeed,
maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне,
звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівноand others).
1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer
tainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне,
напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда)
2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe,
perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно,
здається)
3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate
ly, unfortunately), which have a restricted number of semantic equiva lents in
Ukrainian (нащастя, нажаль, шкода)
4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in
form with the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly —
може, можливо, мабуть)
Prepositions: Isomorphism is observed in the morphological structure.
Simple (прості): at, in, on; в, з, під; Compound (складні): inside, into, within;
посеред, поміж, із-за; Derivative (похідні): along, beside; внаслідок, завдяки;
Composite (складені): by means of, in spite of; на відміну від, в межах.
The only structural difference, therefore, is in the group of simple
prepositions, among which there are some Ukr prepositions consisting of a single
consonant or vowel (в, у, о, з).
Conjunctions are functional words realising the connection of
homogeneous parts in co-ordinate word-groups and sentences or linking
subordinate clauses in composite sentences. As to their structure, conjunctions are
generally characterised by isomorphism. The various types are as follows: 1)
Simple (and, but, or, if, that, till і /й, а, бо, ні, та/. 2) Derivative/compound: all +
though --» although, un + less -» unless, be + cause — » because, un + till -» until,
where + as -» whereas, a + бо -» або, за + те -» зате, про + те — проте, як +
що -» якщо, як + би -» якби, etc. 3) Composite (складені): as if, as soon as, in
order that; так що; через те, що; для того, щоб; з того час, як; відтоді, як,
etc.
The use of conjunctions may be non-repeated (and, but, since a,але,
що) and repeated (in Ukrainian) or correlative (in English), eg: both... and,
either..or, neither... nor, no sooner... than (i — i, ні — ні, то — то, чи — чи, не
то — не то, не стільки — скільки).
As to their syntactic functions, conjunctions in the contrasted
languages fall into two common-isomorphic groups: a) co-ordinating conjunctions
and b) subordinating conjunctions.Сo-ordinating conjunctions in the
contrasted languages fall into the following subclasses:
1. Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, neither... nor, as well as,
both... and, not only... but also; і/й, та, також, і... і, ні... ні, як... так і, не
тільки... але й/і.
2. Disjunctive (розділові) conjunctions denote in both languages
sepa ration. They are: or, either... orабо, ато, чи, або... або, чи... чи, то...
то, чи то...чи то. 3. Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yetале, проте,
зате, однак, все ж and others. 4. Resultative (пояснювальні): so,
henceтак, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме, як от. 5. The causal
conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English.
Subordinate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are of
isomorphic nature, i. e. common in both contrasted languages, too. They
express different sense relations and fall into the following groups:
1. Conjunctions of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, before,
while, as soon as, коли, відколи, поки, аж поки, доки, аж доки, як, після
того як, в міру того як, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве.
2. Conjunctions/connectives of place and direction: where,
wherev er, whence, де, де б, куди, звідки.
3. Conjunctions of cause or reason: as, because, since, seeing, бо,
через те що, тому що, затим що, оскільки.
4. Conjunctions of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing
якби, якщо, якщо б, коли б, аби, скоро.
5. Conjunctions of purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, щоб,
для того щоб, з тим щоб.
6. Conjunctions of result: so that, that, так що, отож:, тож.
7. Conjunctions of concession: though, although, as, even if,
even though, however, wherever, whatever, whichever, хоч, хай, нехай,
дарма що, незважаючи (на).
Conjunctions of comparison: as, as...as, not so... as, than, as if, as
though, як, що, мов, мовби, немов, немовби, наче, неначе, начебто, ніби,
нібито.
Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words
specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a
sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions or prepositions, particles do not
express any syntactic relations. Their function is in both languages to
emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they specify by
giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc.) to their
meaning/sense. As to their morphological structure, particles in the
contrasted languages may be: Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й,
так, ну, не, ж, егеand others; Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply,
нум, нумо, було, просто, все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи;
Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз).
Quite common, although not always equally represented, are the
semantic groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely:
1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення):
absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямоand
others.
2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце,
онде, ген, воно
3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так,
гаразд, еге, егеж
4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in
English and Ukrainian: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, таки,
аж, навіть, вже, ж, бо, же, (a) and others
5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні): not,
never, no, не, ні, ані.
6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no,
why, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, тану, щоза
7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also,
too(тож, також/теж, дотогож, щей)
Іnterjections do not correlate with notions, they do not express
any relations or point to any connection with words in an utterance.
Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional and
volitional reaction of the speaker on some event. Hence, there are to be
distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which
express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc.
6.The simple sentences in English and Ukrainian.Parts of sentences
In simple sentence the subject can be expressed by the
noun,pronoun,cardinal numerals or other parts of speech which should be
substantivized.There are subjectless sentences which are practically not used in
English.The formal subject exists alongside with the notional one in E. The formal
subject is expressed by the word deprived of the lexical mean & is necessary to
complete the sentence from the structural point of view.
Notional subject expresses certain object & is used in personal
sentences.
In U. subjectless sentences are widely used.The subject is often
missing in negative sentences.(Тут немає стола)
In E. the formal subject is usually expressed by pronoun”it” which is
used with a group of predicate.There are such types:-simple or compound
predicate which point out the natural phenomena; - with compound predicate
which has modal or evaluative meaning(It was difficult); - with compound
predicate pointing the time or space; - simple predicate expressed by the passive
form of the verb(It is said, it is believed)
In E. the role of subject can be performed by non-verbal part of
speech(gerund) (Smoking is bad for health)
There are several types of the compound sentences depending on the
meaning of their conjunction in both languages: - the copulative; - the
disjunctive; - the adversative; - the causative-consecutive (compound sent with
the meaning of suddenness; compound sent with asyndetically ajoined clauses )
The copulative sentences in E. are joined by following conjunctions:
and, neither…nor, not…but. In U.: і, або...й, та, та...й, і.. і, ні..ні. Unlike U. “i”,
E ”and” is also widely used with the copulative-adversative meaning which
mostly corresponds to the Ukr. conjunction “a”.
Disjunctive compound sent. are joined in E. with the help of such
conjunctions as: or, either..or.In Ukr.: або..або,чи..чи,то..то. In both lang. the
connection between the parts of such a sent. is very close & if to omit one part, the
sent. would lose its sense.
The adversative compound sent is rendered into U. with the help of
such conjunctions as : а, але, проте, та, так,все ж. In E.:
or,but,while,still,nevertheless,however. It is worth to mention that conj. “a” in U.
has more shades of meaning than “але”.They are: - contrasting. – sequence of
events. – separate fulfilling of events. – conclusion. The E. conj.”while” has
opposing similar meanings to some U. “a” .
The causative-consecutive compound sent is rendered into U. with the
help of such conjunctions as: i,a.In E.: so, so that, for. In E. there is connective
adverb
“therefore”.The
second
part
of
sentence
expresses
conclusion,confirmationor consequence of the idea expressed in the 1st part of
compound sentence.
Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary
or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial
modifier – as the secondary parts of the sentence.
7. Differences and similarities of complex sentensec in both contrasted
languages
This type, of composite sentence has some isomorphic features of its
own. They are in the contrasted languages as follows: 1) the complex sentence has
a polypredicative nature; 2) it is characterized by the subordinate way of joining
the clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous
clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the ihatrix clause or to
each other syndentically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and
subordinating connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some
logico-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include
predicative, objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the
corresponding clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding
position/place in regard to the matrix clause.
The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between
the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of
relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate
word-groups. Hence, there are distinguished the following typologically relevant
groups of subordinate clauses:
In English:1. Substantive-nominal: a)subject subordinate clauses;
b)predicative subordinate clauses; c)objective s.c. 2.Qualitatively-nominal:
a)descriptive attributive clauses; b)restrictive a.c.; 3.Adverbial clauses: of time,
perpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition, consession, result.
In
Ukr.:1.Субстантивно-номінативні:а)підметові
підрядні
речення, б)присудкові п.р., в)додаткові п.р. 2. Квалітативно-номінативні:
а)описові
атрибутивні
підр.реч.,
б)обмежуючі
а.п.р.
3.Адвербіальніпідрядніречення: часу, місця, мети, причини, способу, дії,
умови, допусту, наслідку.
1.Cultural implication of the tr-ion process.
Translation is a communicative process, a process of conveying
messages across linguistic and cultural barriers. Tr. is a cross-cultural
communication, a cross-cultural understanding. Culture is a pattern of
behavior, the way of being, living in the world. There exist the following
culture aspects: attitudes, values and believes. Cross-cultural understanding
is the understanding of ones own cultural heritage and understanding of the
culture of another country in addition to knowledge of a language. Tr.
implies that we have the capacity to enter into the mind, he world and culture
of the speaker or writer and that we can express their thoughts in the manner
that isn't only parallel to the origin, but also exceptable to the target l-ge.
L-ge study is increasingly viewed as providing not only contacts
with the native speakers but privileged access to their way of thinking, to
their culture. Proficiency in the foreign l-ge means effective communication
which involves not only exchanging but creating rapport and good will. It
requires accurate as well as fluent l-ge supported by a knowledge of the
culture and society, a knowledge of how to observe and analyze the culture,
and the social-linguistic ability to interact and to perceive non-verbal
messages. When we speak about culture we are talking about the ability to
understand and be understood. Culture is the patterned way of thinking and
behavior. We enrich linguistic competence with the cultural one.(Claire
Kramsh)
Language and culture go together, not dissociated from each other.
This makes a translation process (both oral and written) valid and crucial.
Training of translators is constructed on major categories: grammar and
discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic into that. These components make a
main stream of translation. The first two (grammar and discourse) mirror the
language at work - its inner laws, substance and function, efficiency of its
units, intersentential relationship.
Sociolinguistic
and
strategic
subcategories
refer
to
communicative parameters - social context, interaction of participants, goals,
strategies, intentions.
Sociolinguistic factor is gaining stronger and stronger position in
the training process of translators. Nowadays cross-cultural aspects are on
the par with contrastive studies of languages, they both feed back training
process, make it efficient.
Cultural differences impact on language forms and functions. In
this condition a translator is to be aware of verbal and nonverbal behavior of
a language community-beliefs, values, manners, feelings, paralinguistic
phenomena like gesture, posture, facial expression, movement. In a nutshell
he is to be on the alert with acceptable /unacceptable things. Words like
garments clothe the ideas, make them go. Enormous effect depends on the
proper usage of words, their explicit and implicit adequacy, cultural sources.
Culture being rooted in ethnic identity lives in ideas, values, behavior of
community individuals and can't be ousted from language acquisition.
Translators are to be exposed to intercultural aspects let alone interlingual
relating to their would-be profession. Cultural aspects constitute a major part
in translator training, for hey provide adequate comprehension of
ethnographic peculiarities. Special discourse patterns and culturally
predetermined expectation are badly needed on the part of a tr-or to fulfil the
tr-ion faithfully.
2. Transformations in the process of tr.
The kind of major and minor alterations in the structural form of
language units performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in
translation are referred to as translator'stransformations. Transf.-it is the
change in a source of tr-ion. Central-in- we don’t change the meaning, but
change words, grammar. Kinds: Concretization-the lexical transformation, in
which a word with broader meaning is changed to narrower. Usually used
when there are words with broader meaning-thing,to be,piece,to go,matter.
EX: the focus is on the description of the selection process itself-тут увага
зосереджується на описі самого процесу відбору.Generalisationopposite to concretization, is used in translation of technical or scientific
texsts.EX: the first factories were driven by water-перші фабрики
працювали на воді.Addition-we add up the word or word combination in
order to specify the meaning.It is not the changing of the content. EX: nonmembers of organizationare invited to conference-країни,що не є членами
організації,запрошуються для участі в конференції. Omission-some
important detail may be skipped in fawour of a rather important fact. EX: the
proposal
was
rejected
and
repudiated-пропозицію
було
відхилено.Anonymic-EX: to fail-не вдаватися,he said nothing-він
промовчав.
It is essential to recognize that source language text undergoes a
number of changes known as translation transformations. These are inter-language
changes of meaningful verbal signs.
Translation transformation, however arbitrary, can be observed on
different levels of language hierarchy: grammatical, lexico-semantic and stylistic.
Translation theory distinguishes several types of translation
transformations. The most traditional among them are: transposition/permutation,
substitution/replacement, omission, addition and compensation.
·
Transposition/permutation is a change in order of linguistic
elements: words, phrases, clauses and sentences in the Target Language as
compared with Source Language. This change may be caused by many reasons.
Among them the necessity of preserving intact the functional sentence perspective,
which traditionally may take different places in two languages.
·
Addition is resorted to when translating from the English text.
Among the reasons for the use of additional lexical units to render implicit
meaningful elements of the Source Language text are: a) compressed grammatical
structures of the English language, b) the discrepancy in the use of the plural and
the singular forms of certain nouns, c) the discrepancy in word-building and some
others.
·
Differentiation can be defined as the replacement of a lexical unit
of broad meaning with a lexical unit of a narrower meaning. It is the most frequent
device in English-Ukrainian translation due to the misbalance between abstract
and desemantized words in the languages. There is a large group of words in
English vocabulary of wide semantic volume that are sometimes necessary to
differentiate or to make them more concrete in translation. Though there can be
other possibilities, e.g. you can omit them in your translation. The context and
your background knowledge will often help you to make the right choice.
·
Generalization is the process opposite of differentiation. It takes
place where a lexical unit of a narrower meaning in the Source Text is replaced by
a lexical unit of a broader meaning in the target language. The transformation
occurs in both English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English translation. When
translating from English into Ukrainian many word signifying exact time, size,
height, address, etc. may be rendered by words of broader semantic meaning, if no
narrower equivalent exists or accuracy is not required.
·
Omission is the process of omitting certain elements when
translating from the source language into the target language and is the opposite of
addition. It must be remembered though, that the translator cannot deliberately
take out any elements of the sense, which is also true in the case of addition. The
translator may omit only those lexical elements that repeat themselves in a certain
way in the source language according to its norms and become redundant in the
target language when translated according to its norms.
·
Substitution/ replacement is a kind of grammatical transformation,
where a grammatical unit in the source language is transformed into a unit with a
different grammatical meaning. Grammatical replacement may occur at any level
of the language and affects practically all types of linguistic units: word forms,
parts of speech, sentence elements, sentence types, types of syntactic relations.
3. Idiomatic English: what kind of l-ge is it?
The word ''idiom'' have different meanings. One of them is: idiom is a
sequence of word which is semantically and often syntactically restricted so that it
functions as a single unit and the meaning of the individual words can't be
combined to produce the meaning of the idiom. This is that we also call
''phraseological unit''. But there is also another definition of the word
''idiom'': Idiom - linguistic usage that is grammatical and natural to native
speakers of a l-ge. Idiomatic l-ge - the way of expression typical of a person or a
group in their use of l-ge, the way the native speaker use the l-geFor example,
idiomatic English is the way of speaking typical of a native speaker of the Eng. lge. Idiomatic l-ge of the youth - the way how the young people are talking. In the
process of tr-ion there are no strict grammar rules but crucial is idiomatic l-ge. It
goes without saying that a good translation should aim towards an equivalence in
meaning between the source language and the target language. Another important
aim is to produce texts that are idiomatic in the target languageю Examples of Eng.
idiomatic l-ge: sth (prices) is subject to change - може змінюватися; market
economy country - країна з ринковою економікою; Ambassador extraordinary
and plenipotentiary to Ukr.- надзвичайний і повноважний посол; notary public
-держю нотаріус; hard coat cash only- лише готівка; by appointment only- лише
за попередньою домовленістю; to serve as (translator)- працювати; these
documents are treated as confidential -ці документи є конфіденційні; to be not
much of a expert - не бутии знавцем; technical writing-діловодство, Ukrainian
studies- українознавство; no soliciting - товари не пропонувати; in layman's lge - простою мовою; staff only - стороннім вхід заборонено; no entry; private
property/ no trespassing - приватна власність/перебування заборонено, advice
ones decision - повідомити рішення, minor children - неповнолітні, to become
effective from (law) - вступати в дію, набирати чинності, wet paint! - увага
помальовано…
4. Approaches to trans. asyndetic noun cluster.
Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which
are very often used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are wordgroups consisting of two, three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to
word-groups) like yarn production, yarn production figures; the House of
Commons debate; mother and child care.
Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their
structure, they are always in subordinate relation to each other, they function
as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies
the left-hand (initial) position and the latter the right-hand (closing) position
in the cluster.
So is the structural complexity of many asyndetic noun clusters,
which may make their identification as two-, three-, four-, etc. componental
word-group uncertain. In other words, a difficulty may arise as to how the
asyndetic clusters should be treated - as the NN, NNN, or NNNN, etc. wordgroups. This is of importance not so much for the allotment of a noun cluster,
which can partly be seen from the following examples: wage increase
підвищення зарплати; 10 percent wage increase підвищення зарплати на
10%, US policy політика США; US foreign policy зовнішня політика
США; the House of Commons debate дебати в палаті громад; the recent
House of Commons debate останні дебати в палаті громад.
The adjectival components, therefore, can extend the asyndetic
noun cluster and change the starting point of their translation without
changing in any way their asyndetic nature. Neither do they change the
quantitative correlation of noun components in the clusters. The components
like North-West, the U.S.A., the U.K., and the like are to be treated as single
heads or single adjuncts, since they function as a single Ncompound, or
Nabreviated/Nproper, etc.
there may be various approaches to rendering the lexical meaning
of asyndetic noun clusters. These approaches are predetermined by the
following main factors: 1) by the number of nouns making up the cluster; 2)
by the structure of the adjunct and head (or both these components); 3) by the
semantic relations between the constituent parts of the asyndetic noun cluster
which may be local, temporal and others by nature; 4) by the presence or
absence of the preceding adjective, participle, possessive pronoun or ordinal
numeral.
There can be suggested some ways of faithful translation of
asyndetic nounclusters into Ukrainian. Each of these ways may be
predetermined by one of the following three factors:
1) by the lexical meaning of the component parts; 2) by their
structural hum and 3) by the meaning of the cluster as a whole
Some adjuncts of asyndetic noun clusters often have a composite
structure. They may consist of words belonging to different parts of speech
which constitute either a regular phrase or a hyphenated conglomeration of
words. This kind of word-groups are usually translated in a descriptive way
too: lame duck policy невдала політика, rob Peter and pay Pall policy
політика виплати одній категорії населення за рахунок пограбування
іншої.
5. Style and register in tr-ion.
There is a universal agreement that the aim in the work of
translator is to produce as nearly as possible the same effect on the reader of
translated text as had been produced on the reader of the original text.
Language fulfils an extremely wide variety of functions in human society. It
is by means of language that we shape and express our thoughts, convey our
feelings and wishes. Language in its written and oral form is the instrument
of mass media-press, television and cinema. For the realization of various
language functions in speech there have developed various types of language,
each of which is characterized by special lexical, grammatical and
phraseological means.
We single out the following styles: colloquial, academic, official
or business, literary. There are many definitions of the term ''style''. And one
of them is - style is a manner of writing, speaking or performing. In
choosing one type of vocabulary rather than another, the whole feel and
character of the text may change. Saying that the text has a certain 'feel and
character', brought about by the various choices we make in speaking or
writing, is just another way of referring to the text's style. In the process of trion expressive connotation of the original text should be in accordance with
the expressive connotation of the translated text.
Register is the amount of formality in l-ge. There are two major
registers: formal and informal. The first one is applied in different formal situation.
For example, in business conferences, political negotiations, different documents,
judicial matters, TV news etc. The second one is used in everyday speech, films,
fictions etc. E. G. father(f) - daddy(inf); child(f)- kid(inf); to die(f)- to kick the
bucket(inf)…As a general rule, written texts tend towards the formal end of the
scale, while spoken language is usually found at the informal end. But this does
not mean that written texts cannot display features of informal style, or involve
conscious choices that seem to make them more like spoken language.
It goes without saying that a good translation should aim towards an
equivalence in meaning between the source language and the target language.
Another important aim is to produce texts that are idiomatic in the target language.
In connection with style, we may add a third ideal aim: to achieve equivalence of
effect. This means that, as far as possible, the target language text should have the
same effect on its readers as the source language text has on its readers. In other
words, a text that appears as formal or technical in Ukrainian should not read as
informal or colloquial in English. This, in turn, has a bearing upon our choice of
vocabulary, sentence structure, word order, etc.
The professional translator should convey the linguistic messages
from one language into another in such a way that they can be considered to be
intersubstitutable.
6. Background knowledge as a professional factor in tr-ion/int-ing.
Translation is a communicative process, a process of conveying
messages across linguistic and cultural barriers. There are three essential qualities
of translator: 1. l-ge proficiency 2. cross-cultural understanding and
awareness3. .background knowledge. No doubt the translator needs a very
considerable knowledge of phonology, grammar, vocabulary of the l-ge, but
he/she should also know a good deal about literature, history, traditions and
customs of English speaking people. The knowledge shared by all the
representatives of the given l-ge or ethic community and which is closely
connected with the knowledge of national culture is called background knowledge.
Background knowledge in its broad interpretation is practically all the knowledge
which is at the communicants' disposal by the moment of communication.
Proceeding from this background knowledge can be subdivided into:
1) knowledge common to all mankind (e.g. everybody knows what
wind, birth, time, etc are);
2)regional knowledge (e.g. not all inhabitants of the tropics know what
snow is);
3) knowledge possessed only by the members of a certain ethnic and
language community (nation): John Bull- a nickname of the English;
4)knowledge possessed only by the membersof a locally or socially
closed (Granta - the local name of the river Cam as it flows through Cambridge;
5) knowledge possessed only by the members of a given micro
community, such as a family, a class of students or a professional group, etc. (e.g.
nicknames known to a small group of people, some events in the life of these
groups, etc.).
For example, all Americans are undoubtedly aware of the fact thatOval
Cabinetis the working office of the US President in the White House; 'the Hill' is
actually the Capital Hill, which dominates Washington, D.C., and where the
Congress buildings and Supreme Court stand; 'Bobby' is a common nickname for
a policeman, Marks&Spencer is a chain store selling high-quality clothing and
food products in England ; it is known all over the country, the same as Harrods.
Certainly, background knowledge is formed in the process of learning.
The role of. literature in acquiring background knowledge is very significant.
Literature does not only perform an aesthetical function but also serves as an
abundant source of country study information, as it gives an optimum amount of
varied material. There exists a definite list of folklore and fiction works, which
every American or Ukrainian should by all means familiarize himself with. Every
educated Englishman or American would at once recognize in two word
combinations of words an allusion to the titles of well known books written by
famous authors: The Twelfth Night (Shakespeare), Vanity Fair (Thackeray), The
Jungle Book (R.Kipling), Lord Jim (J,Conrad), The Jumping Frog (M.Twau»),The
Great Gatsby (S.Fitzgcrald).
Proverbs, sayings and quotations also refers to the background
knowledge as a-cultural heritage of the nation.
Background knowledge is used not only for creating imagery in a piece
of fiction. It usually serves as a basis for literary analogies, parodies, allusions, as
well as for historical stylization of the text. The process of searching and making
tr-ion choices should be based on using the background knowledge.
7. The notion of realia in the process of translation.
The source language words may express an abstract or concrete
concept, which is completely unknown in the target culture. Such concepts
are often referred to 'culture-specific' or in other, words they are called realia.
Practically speaking, by realia one can mean everything, which for its
adequate description requires either an encyclopedic reference, or schematic
presentation or some information known to native speakers but unknown to
foreigners. In translation theory by realia 'words', 'lexical units' adding
occasionally 'word combinations' are meant (steppe, kozak). However in the
majority of cases realia are represented by words and nominative word
combinations. It is quite logical to include abbreviations in realia as the
former constitute contracted nominative combinations (e.g. VIP-very
important person). Abbreviated names are especially difficult for translating.
Stylistically realia belong to the national literary language and this makes
them different from scientific terms, professionalisms, localisms, slangy
words, etc. In linguistic sciences, including theory of translation, realia
classification is, naturally, based on the linguistic principle. Depending on
the language level, realia may be denoted either by words (proper and
common names) or by phraseological units (fixed phraseological units,
winged words, figurative expressions). Let us examine in detail a group of
realia consisting of proper names. Here belong:1. Place names connected
with some events in the life of the given nation Hastings- the town in the UK.
near which William the Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxon King Harold in
1066 .
2. Personal names, which play one of the most significant parts in
the native speakers' background knowledge.
Geographical Realia
a) names of physical geography objects including
meteorology:prairie, canyon, tornado, etc.
b) names of geographical objects connected with human activity:
causeway - a raised roadway, as across water or marshland.
c) plant names:honey-dew . d) animal names: coyote, grizzly
Ethnographical Realia
Everyday life realia include: a) food, beverages and the like:
hamburger, blood mery
b) dwelling, furniture, utensils:grandfather's clock- a pendulum
clock enclosed in a tall, narrow cabinet
c) shops and other places:drugstore- a retail shop where
medicines and miscellaneous articles (as candy, magazines, cosmetics) and
usually refreshments (as at a soda fountain) are sold;
Transport:
a) means of transportation:double-decker
b) organization of labour:truck farming- producing vegetables for
the market;
c) leisure and recreation:dude ranch- a kind of resort;
Culture and Art:
a)Literature: the titles and characters of the most popular works of
literature, aphorisms, winged words, allusions, etc. b) folk-lore: c) dance and
music d) theatre) holidays f) mythology g) name of residents of different
places: Thanksgiving Day, Buck House( Buckingham Palace), country
music…
Socio - Political Realia:
a) territorial units: country, state, county b)Socio-political life:
societies, organizations, etc 2) social phenomena and movements,
their representatives (here also belong the names of various clubs, cultural
and educational organizations) 3) ranks, degrees, titles, direct address,
emblems: 4) offices and educational institutions and their activities 5) class
signs and symbols. E. G. bachelor, the Executive Office
8. Interpreting as a specific type of speech behavior.
Interpreting is the oral rendering of spoken words from one l-ge
into another. Int-ing includes note taking techniques, memory management
and proper speech delivery. Inter-ing is an intercultural communicative
decision-making process. Some assumes that any person who knows more
than one l-ge can automatically interpret or translate. Nothing is further from
the truth. The process of interpreting involves delicate decision making at
every step on many levels. Advanced l-ge skills are only the beginning. Tron and int-ing is a meeting between l-ges and cultures.
Inter-ing as well as tr-ion is a decision-making process because
we have to choose appropriate grammar constructions, vocabulary items,
style and register to make our tr-ion/int-ing proficient and faithful. But the
peculiarity of int-ing that differs it from tr-ion is that we should choose
appropriate grammar constructions, vocabulary items, style and register of
translated matter on the spot, we have no time to consider everything properly, to
hesitate and have no opportunity to use the dictionaries. An interpreter is to obtain
in a quick mental grasp what is being said to render it quickly into another
language. He should do his work with discretion, great presence of mind and
psychological understanding. One should always think of the ways what and how
to say it. That is why we should have just perfect l-ge skills, know all the
peculiarities of l-ge and grammar, to know the idiomatic l-ge, have a good
background knowledge and knowledge of culture. Proceeding from this the
following qualities are identified as essential for good interpreting
Language skills. the depth of linguistic proficiency.
Cultural knowledge is universally acknowledged. Interpreters need to
be acutely aware of cultural differences. They should be both linguistic and
cultural intermediaries .
Analytical skills. Scientist stresses how important it is to analyse a
speech before interpreting it.. Analysis is an intrinsic part of the interpreting
process, rather than an ancillary tactic.
Listening and recall. In interpretation memory and understanding are
inseparable, the one is a function of the other.
Interpersonal skills. A heavy emphasis is put on the interpersonal skills
of interpreters, the mode of direct personal contacts with their clients, delegates of
conference, businessmen, people from all walks of life ranging from factory
workers to housewives / farmers / refugees... Conference interpreters are
encouraged to develop these skills unlike interpreters sitting in their booths
addressing faceless bureaucrats in a disembodied voice.
Ethical behaviour code has the greatest impact on the interpreter's work
in legal settings. Ethics are a major consideration for all interpreters. Interpreters
should understand their role and exercise. Good judgement attune to the
importance of interpreted issues.
Speaking skills. The public speaking is indeed a key component in the
training of all types of interpreters . Effective speaking skills range from quality of
voice to choice of idiom, vocabulary, phrasing. What comes out of the mouth of
the interpreter and the way it comes out are very important in the overall
effectiveness of the interpretation.
Subject knowledge is badly needed to interpret accurately. Some
understanding of the subjects presupposes an adequate discussion, let alone
interpretation. All experts on interpreting recognize the need of proper technical
terminology and content knowledge in relevant fields.
All interpreters must demonstrate the qualities listed above, regardless
of where and for whom they interpret.
9. Equivalence in translation: major types and techniques.Types of
interpreting.
Interpreting is the oral rendering of spoken words from one l-ge into
another. There several types of int: simultaneous, consecutive, liaison, media,
business and other. Simultaneous interpreting suggests providing the targetlanguage message at roughly the same time as the source-language message is
being produced. Insimultaneous interpretation the interpreter is isolated in a booth.
He speaks at the same time as the speaker and therefore has no need to memorize
or jot down what is said. As this type of work is particularly tiring and stressful
the rule of thumb is that interpreter should be able to have a break after 45 minutes
of continuous work. The process of analysis-comprehension and that of
reconstruction-expression are telescoped. The interpreter works on the message bit
by bit, giving the portion he has understood while analysing and assimilating the
next text.
Inconsecutive interpreting the interpreter waits until the speaker has
finished before beginning the interpretation. The interpreter does not begin
speaking until the original speaker has stopped. He has time to analyse the
message as a whole, which makes it easier for him to understand its meaning. He
speaks to his listeners face to face and therefore he actually becomes the speaker.
There functionswhispered interpretation in case when equipment for
simultaneous interpretation is not available. One participant speaks and
simultaneously an interpreter whispers into the ear of the one or maximum two
people who require interpreting service.
Conference interpreting is equated with simultaneous interpreting
these days, though interpreters must be prepared to perform in the consecutive
mode as well.Conference interpreting enables the participants to communicate
with each other in a seamless fashion, making the language barrier almost
imperceptible.
Seminar interpreting takes place in meeting and small conferences.
The basic difference between conference interpreting and seminar interpreting is
the size of the meeting.
Escort interpreting refers to the services provided for government
officials, business executives, investors, observers, and the like who are
conducting on-site visits. This interpretation is marked by the spontaneity
and the broad spectrum of situations interpreters may find themselves in
(formal meetings, tours of factories, cocktail parties). The mode in
consecutive, limited almost to a few sentences at a time.
Media interpreting in performed at press conferences, publicity
appearances / interviews / films / videos / TV / radio conferences.
Court interpreting refers to services provided in courts of law,
legal cases of any sort.
Business (commercial or trade) interpreting refers to business
people discussing business matters (welfare / medical / legal rubric) through
an interpreter. Interpreting settings range from arts, sports, tourism,
recreation to parents negotiations or government to government meetings of
delegations. Business interpreting may entail either consecutive or
simultaneous interpreting. Sign-language interpreters are called upon to
interpret with increasing frequency in commercial settings.
Medical interpreting (alternation terms are healthcare
interpreting, hospital interpreting) encompasses a variety of situations. Cf.
routine consultation with a physician, emergency procedures, prepared
childbirth classes, support for complex laboratory testing, industrial injury
claims, personal injury lawsuits.
Education interpreting is a rapidly growing field of specialization.
Either consecutive or simultaneous interpreting may be required in the
classroom for students who cannot understand the language of instruction,
between teachers and parents at school board meetings and disciplinary
hearings.
Qver-the-Phone interpreting (OPD or remote interpreting refers
to services provided over telephonic links (video links included). OPI is
mostly done consecutively, in telecommunications technology simultaneous
interpretation is more prevalent.
Community interpreting enables people who are not fluent
speakers of the official language (s) of the country to communicate with the
providers of public services so as to facilitate full or equal access to legal,
health, education, government and social services. There is little consensus
about the definition of quasi-synonymous terms (liaison, ad hoc, threecornered, dialogue, contact public service, cultural interpreting).
Community interpreting is considered as an umbrella including
both court and interpreting and community interpreters are considered as
amateurs and well-meaning but misguided as "do-gooders".
Liaison interpreting it is a business int-ing, also int-ing for trade
conventions. Usually refers to activity of one interpreter who accompany an
individual.
1. Додавання ймовірностей.
Правило додавання: Нехай А і В – скінчені множини
такі, що А∩В=Ø, |А|=m і |В|=n. Тоді |АUВ|= m+n. Вибір
правил, за допомогою яких обчислюється ймовірність
складної події, визначається тим, несумісними чи сумісними
є елементарні події, що утворюють складну подію.
Ймовірність появи однієї з декількох попарно несумісних
подій
дорівнює
сумі
ймовірностей
цих
подій:
P(A+B)=P(A)+P(B). Проте, якщо дві події сумісні, то
ймовірність їхньої суми обчислюється як сума ймовірностей
цих подій мінус добуток ймовірностей цих подій-одночасної
появи:(
іноді P(A)=1-P( ).Сума ймовірностей двох
протилежних подій дорівнює одиниці. При обчисленні
ймовірності суми декількох сумісних подій використовують
правило, за яким ймовірність появи хоча б однієї з декількох
сумісних подій дорівнює різниці між одиницею і
ймовірністю одночасної появи (добутку) всіх протилежних
подій. Прогнозування ймовірностей лінгвістичних подій
при повторенні дослідів. Для побудови алгоритму роботи
імовірнісного автомата, який розпізнає усну мову,
доводиться обчислювати ймовірність збігу хоча б однієї із
словоформ тексту, що обробляється, з відповідною лексемою,
заданою у словнику автомата. Припустимо, що потрібно
визначити ймовірність того, що хоча б одно з двох вибраних
слів з тексту буде займенником він. А – перша поява
займенника, В- друга. Подій А і В сумісні Ймовірність появи
займенника
він
–
0,0099:
Р(А+В)=0,0099+0,00990,0099*0,0099 Якщо розпізнавальний автомат аналізує 10
словоформ і треба визначити, що хоча б одна з них –
займенник він, то Р(С)=1-(1-0,0099)10.
2. Залежні лінгвістичні події та умовні ймовірності.
Мовознавство порівняно рідко має справу з
незалежними подіями, тобто такими подіями, ймовірність
появи яких не залежала від ймовірності появи іншої
лінгвістичної події – такі ймовірності називаються
безумовними.. Мова йде про залежні та умовні ймовірності:
навіть ймовірності появи букв, фонем, складів, морфем тощо
є умовними, оскільки залежать від позиції цих лінгвістичних
об’єктів у слові, словосполученні і реченні. Розглянемо
приклад лінгвістичного досліду. Словоформа мамам(Д. в
множини від мама) складена з букв різної абетки. Картки з
буквами цієї словоформи покладені в урну. Здійснюється
випробовування, яке полягає у витяганні картки з буквою і
поверненні її в урну. Подією В вважатиметься витягання
буквим у першому випробовуванні(тоді ¯В буде витягання з
урни нем, тобто витягання букви а), подією А – витягання
букви а у 2у випробовуванні(тоді ¯А буде витягнення не а,
тобто букви м). оскільки витягнена в перший раз буква
повертається в урну, то перед другим дослідом кількість букв
в урні не зміниться. Тому ймовірність події А є безумовною,
оскільки вона не залежить від того, чи була витягнена до
цього з урни буква м(подія В) чи буква а(подія ¯В), і
залишається =2/5. безумовною є і ймовірність події В. Якщо
змінити умову досліду і не повертати витягнену букву назад
до урни, то ймовірності одержати у 2у, 3у і наступних
випробовуваннях букву а або м будуть істотно залежати від
того, які букви були витягнені перед цим з урни. Нехай
результатом 1го випробування була буква м; тоді
ймовірність витягнути у 2у випробовуванні букву а=1/2.
у тому ж випадку ймовірність витягнути 2й раз букву
а=1/4. Аналогічна ситуація виникає при визначенні
ймовірності появи букви м у 2у витягуванні за умови, що
у 1й раз була витягнена буква м або а. Отже, події А та В
є залежними, а їхні ймовірності умовними. Умовна
ймовірність події А за умови, що відбулося декілька
подій В, позначається Р(А/В). Величина умовної
ймовірності завжди міститься в тому ж проміжку, що і
величина абсолютної ймовірності, тобто 0<=Р(А/В)<=1
3. Правило множення ймовірностей і обчислення
ймовірностей мовних елементів
Кожен текст або його частину можна розглядати
як сумісну появу деякої лінійної послідовності
лінгвістичних подій – сумісну появу ланцюжка
словоформ, послідовності складів, ланцюжків фонем або
букв. Визначення ймовірностей появи цих ланцюжків
ґрунтується на теоремі множення ймовірностей.
Ймовірність сумісної появи двох подій дорівнює добутку
ймовірності першої події на умовну ймовірність другої,
обчисленої за умови, що перша подія відбулась:
Р(АВ)=Р(А)Р(В/А) Для незалежних подій теорема
спрощується: ймовірність добутку двох незалежних
випадкових подій дорівнює добутку їх безумовних
ймовірностей: Р(АВ)=Р(А)Р(В).
Ймовірність добутку залежних подій А, В, С
дорівнює добутку ймовірності однієї з них на умовну
ймовірність другої, обчислену за умови, що перша подія
відбулась, і на умовну ймовірність третьої, обчислену за
умови, що дві попередні події відбулись P(ABC) =
P(A)P(B/ A)P(C/ AB). Я-0, 032 пробіл-0,174 p(probil
jj)=P(pr)*P(ja/pr)=0, 032 *0,174
4.Визначення загальної ймовірності лінгвістичної
події за формулою повної ймовірності
Якщо лінгвістична подія А може відбутись разом
з однією і тільки однією з n несумісних подій Н1, Н2...,
які утворюють повну групу подій, то для визначення
ймовірності події А використовується формула повної
ймовірності:
Несумісні події Н1, Н2 називається гіпотезами.
Таким чином, ймовірність події А дорівнює сумі добутків
ймовірності кожної гіпотези на ймовірність події при
здійсненні цієї гіпотези. Формула повної ймовірності
використовується для обчислення загальної ймовірності
лінгвістичної події за умови, що відомі її ймовірності у
вузько-тематичних вибірках.
5. Апріорні та апостеріорні ймовірності. Вимірювання
ймовірностей лінгвістичних гіпотез
Досі ми мали справу з так званими апріорними
ймовірностями лінгвістичних подій. Ці апріорні
ймовірності встановлювались інтуїтивно-емпірично або
теоретично до здійснення досліду, виходячи з наших знань
про умови цього досліду. Наші відомості про умови досліду
звичайно не повні, тому апріорні ймовірності є
ймовірностями деяких лінгвістичних гіпотез про результат
експерименту. Результат експерименту як правило змушує
здійснити переоцінку наших гіпотез і надати їм нові –
апостеріорні ймовірності. Р(Н) – апріорні ймовірності гіпотез,
А- подія, яка з’явилась в результаті досліду. Необхідно
визначити як потрібно змінити ймовірності лінгвістичних
гіпотез у зв’язку із появою події А. Використовуємо формулу
голосної і приголосної. Р(А)=m/n=р, З(А¯)=(n-m)/n=q.
Тепер знайдемо ймовірність того, що при N незалежних
випробувань подія А появиться рівно х разів, якщо
ймовірність появи цієї події при кожному окремому
випробуванні стала і дорівнює р. Для цього складемо всі
можливі схеми, які утворять послідовність з появи х разів
події А та N – х разів не появи цієї події. За теоремою
множення ймовірність появи кожної схеми складає р хqN –
x
, а кількість таких схем дорівнює кількості сполук з N
елементів по х, тобто СNx. Звідси випливає, що
ймовірність появи події А рівно х разів у серії N
незалежних випробувань складає
Байєса (або ф-лу ймовірностей гіпотез) Р(Н/А)=
6. Комбінаторний підхід до визначення кількості інф-ї
Введення поняття ентропії дає можливість
проводити кількісне вимірювання інформації. Дійсно, в
результаті проведення досліду A ми отримаємо нові
відомості, тобто деяку інформацію. Одночасно знання
результату досліду знімає повністю або частково ту
невизначеність, яка була до його проведення. Тому
правильно припустити, що знята в результаті досліду A
ентропія дорівнює кількості одержаної інформації,
тобтоН(А)=І(А). тоді випливає, що к-сть інф-ї, отриманої від
випробовування з S рівно можливими результатами,
визначається рівністю І0 = log2 S. К-сть рівно можливих
результатів визначається звичайно шляхом дослідження
комбінаторики елементів і зв’язків, які характеризують дане
лінгвістичне явище. У зв’язку з цим ця методика є
комбінаторним підходом до визначення к-сті інф.
Імовірнісний підхід. Якщо лінгвістичне випробовування
передбачає нерівно ймовірні результати, то ентропія такого
досліду і отримана від нього к-сть інф-ї будуть відрізнятися
від аналогічних величин для досліду з рівно ймовірними
результатами. Обчислення ентропії та інф-ї випробовування з
нерівно ймовірними закінченнями здійснюється на основі
таких
міркувань.
Використовуючи
відомі
правила
логарифмування перепишемо вираз І0 = log2 S у вигляді І0 = log2 (1/S). Тут 1/ S – це ймовірність р кожного закінчення
досліду. Якщо дослідження нерівно ймовірні, то кожне
закінчення має свою ймовірність рі .Тоді індивідуальна к-сть
інф-ї Іі = - log2 рі . Тоді середня к-сть інф-ї Ĩі = - рі · log2 рі.
загальна інф-ї визначається наступною рівністю: І = -Σрі ·
log2 рі = Σ Ĩі.
7. Проста схема незалежних випробувань. Формула Бернуллі
Проста схема передбачає тільки два результати
досліду: появу або не появу ознаки A. Прикладом такої схеми
є повторна вибірка з тексту приголосних (A) і голосних ( A )
фонем.
Припустимо, що в деякому тексті з n фонем є m
приголосних і n-m голосних. За схемою повторної вибірки
проводиться N незалежних випробувань, які полягають у
послідовному випадковому витяганні фонеми з тексту.
Потрібно визначити ймовірність події, яка полягає в тому, що
серед витягнених N фонем рівно х виявиться приголосними,
причому порядок слідування голосної і приголосної фонем
байдужий. Вважатимемо появу приголосної подією А, а
появу голосної – подією А¯. Визначимо ймовірності появи
За допомогою цього виразу, який називається
формулою Бернуллі, і здійснюється імовірнісне
прогнозування результатів у простій схемі незалежних
випробувань.
Часто для розв'язування лінгвістичної або інформац
ійної задачі необов'язково визначати всі ймовірності
появи даної події 0,1,2,...,N разів. Достатньо вказати
найбільш ймовірну кількість появ цієї події. Розглянемо :
Зі збільшенням х величина РN(х) зростає і при
деякому х0 (воно називається модальним значенням)
досягає свого найбільшого значення РN(х0). Після цього зі
збільшенням
х
ймовірність
РN(х)
спадає.
Щоб визначити модальне значення х0 необхідно
скористатися такою нерівністю Np+p-1≤x0≥ Np+p.
8. Повторення незалежних випробувань в тексті.
Поліноміальна схема.
При дослідженні механізмів породження тексту
результати окремого лінгвістичного випробування не
мають великого значення. Вивчення взаємодії системи,
норми та ситуації есплікується за допомогою моделей
теорії ймовірностей, які передбачають здійснення
масового експерименту, при якому одна і та сама
лінгвістична подія повторюється багато разів. Ці
випробування, які повторюються, утворюють серії, в
кожній з яких подія з’являється або не з’являється певну
кількість разів. Поліноміальна схема. Якщо лінгвістичне
випробування має декілька результатів, то їх імовірнісне
прогнозування
здійснюється
за
допомогою
поліноміальної схеми. її математична модель будується
так. Припустимо, що деяке лінгвістичне випробування
може мати один з к різних попарно несумісних
результатів А1, А2,...,Ак. Ймовірність кожного з них
позначимо відповідно через Р(А1)=р1, Р(А2)= р2,...,
Р(Ак)=рк.
Оскільки
подія
А1+А2+…+Ак
є
достовірною, то р1+р2+ …+рк=1. Здійснимо N
незалежних випробувань і визначимо ймовірності того,
що подія А1 з'явиться х1 разів, подія А2 - х2 разів,...,
подія Ак - хк разів, де х1, +х2 + … + хк = N. Вказаний
результат одержується різними шляхами, кожний з який
відповідає різним представленням х1 разів результату
А1, х2 разів результату А2,…, хкразів результату Ак.
Ймовірність появи кожної такої комбінації дорівнює
р1х1р2 х2…ркхк. Загальна кількість таких комбінацій
дорівнює добутку
СNх1СNх2…СNхк, який приводиться до виразу
.
Звідси одержуємо, що при N незалежних випробуваннях
ймовірність одержати х1 разів результат А1, х2 разів
результат А2,...,хк разів результат Ак дорівнює
0≤xі≥N, а
, де
.
9. Формальні породжувальні граматики
Алфавіт V – це скінчена непорожня множина
елементів, які називаються символами. Слово(або речення)
над V – це ланцюжок скінченої довжини елементів з V.
Порожній ланцюжок – це ланцюжок, який не містить
символів; позначається через Λ. Множина всіх ланцюжків
називається мовою. Мови можуть бути задані різними
способами. Один з найголовніших – це використання
граматик. Граматика складається з множини символів різного
типу та множини правил побудови слів. Формальна
породжувальна граматика – це четвірка об’єктів G=(V, T, S,
P), де V – алфавіт, який складається з термінальних(Т) та
нетермінальних елементів(N); Т – множина термінальних
елементів, які є неподільними елементами алфавіту і не
можуть бути замінені іншими, позначаються маленькими лат.
буквами; S – початковий еле-т, з якого завжди починаємо
будувати ланцюжок; Р – множина правил побудови
ланцюжків.
10. Типи граматик (класифікація за Н.Хомським).
Продукція, яка також називається правилом
перетворення, дає можливість заміняти одну послідовність
символів іншою. Граматики із фразовою структурою (ГФС)
класифікуються за типами продукцій.
Тип
0 Обмеження на продукції w1 – w2
1 Немає обмежень
2 |w1|<=|w2|, або w2=пуста множина
3 W1=A, де А – нетермінальний символ
W1=A та w2=aB або w2=a, де А,В – не термінальні
символи, а – термінальний символ, або S – пуста мн
W – довжина ланцюжка, тобто кількість символів у
ньому. Граматика типу 2 має продукції лише у формі А–w2,
де А – не термінальний символ. Ця граматика називається
контекстно вільною, оскільки нетермінал А може бути
замінений послідовністю w2 у довільному ланцюжку щоразу,
коли він зустрічається, тобто не залежно від контексту. –
Граматика типу 1 називається контекстно залежною.
Коли у такі граматиці є продукція lAr–lw2r, у якій хоча б
один з ланцюжків l, r відмінний від ^, то не термінал А може
бути замінений ланцюжком w2 лише в оточенні l та r, тобто у
відповідному контексті. –
Граматика типу 3 називається
регулярною. Ця граматика може мати продукцію лише у
формі А–аВ, А– а, S–^, де А,В – не термінали, а – не термінал.
11. Дерево виведення
Виведення у мовах, породжених контекстно
вільними граматиками, може зображатися графічно з
використанням орієнтованих кореневих дерев. Ці дерева
називають деревами виведення або синтаксичного
розбору. Кореню цього дерева відповідає початковий
символ. Внутрішнім вершинам відповідають не
термінальні символи, що зустрічаються у виведенні.
Листкам відповідають термінальні символи. Форми
Бекуса-Наура Для контекстно вільних граматик окрім
звичайного існує ін. спосіб задання – форми БекусаНаура. Продукції контекстно вільних граматик мають у
лівій частині один символ (нетермінальний). Замість того,
щоб виписувати окремо всі продукції, можна об’єднати в
один вираз продукції з однаковим символом у лівій
частині. У такому випадку замість символу → у
продукція використовується символ ::=. Усі нетермінали
при цьому заключаються у трикутні дужки. Праві
частини продукцій в одному виразі відокремлюються
одна від одної символом |. Наприклад, продукції А→ Аа,
А→ а, А→ АВ можна зобразити таким одним виразом у
формі Бекуса-Наура: ‹А›::=‹А›а|а|‹А›‹В›.
12. Скінчений автомат з виходом. Способи задання
Скінчений автомат M=(S, I, O, f, g, s0)
складається з:
•
Скінченої множини станів S;
•
Скінченого вхідного алфавіту І;
•
Скінченого вихідного алфавіту О;
•
Функції переходів f: S x I→ S;
•
Функції виходів g: S x I→ O;
•
Початкового стану s0.
Скінчений автомат може бути заданий двома
способами: 1. За допомогою таблиці станів, яка містить
значення функції переходів f та ф-ї виходів g для всіх пар
(s, i), де s є S, і є І. 2. За допомогою діаграми станів, яка є
орієнтованим графом з поміченими дугами. Кожна
вершина графа відповідає стану. Дуга позначається
вхідним і вихідним сигналами, які відповідають заданому
цією дугою переходу з одного стану в інший.
13. Скінченні автомати без виходу (детерміновані).
Способи завдання.
Скінчений автомат без виходу – це п’ятірка
М=(S,I,f,s0,F), яка містить:
скінчену множину S станів
скінчений вхідний алфавіт І
функцію переходів f: S x І →S
початковий стан s0
підмножину F с S, елементи F
називаються заключними станами.
Скінчений автомат без виходу може бути
заданий: Таблицею станів, Діаграмою станів, заключні
стани на діаграмі позначаються подвійними кружечками.
Ці автомати називаються детермінованими, оскільки для
кожної пари стан - вхідний символ існує єдиний наступний
стан, який задається функцією переходів.
14. Недетермінований скінчений автомат без виходу.
Способи задання
У недетермінованих автоматах може бути декілька
можливих наступних станів для кожної пари стан – вхідний
символ. Недетермінований скінчений автомат без виходу –
це п’ятірка M=(S, I, f, s0, F), де:
•
S – скінчена множина станів;
•
І – скінчений вхідний алфавіт;
•
f – ф-я переходів, яка кожній парі станвхідний символ ставить у відповідність множину станів;
•
s0 – початковий стан;
•
F - підмножина S, де F – множина кінцевих
станів.
Автомат може бути заданий:
•
Таблицею станів;
•
Діаграмою станів, заключні стани на діаграмі
позначаються подвійними кружечками.
15. Зв’язок між регулярними граматиками та скінченими
автоматами.
: Для того, щоб мова була регулярною, необхідно і
достатньо, щоб існував скінчений автомат, який її розпізнає.
Правила переходу від скін. автомату до формальної
граматики: 1. Мн. терм. символів – мн. вхід. символів Т=І, 2.
Множина не термінальних символів – множину станів N=S, 3.
Початковий символ – початковий стан S=S0. 4. Якщо в
автоматі є перехід із стану А в стан В по вхідному елементі х,
то в граматиці це А→хВ, 5. Якщо в автоматі є перехід із
стану А до заключного стану, то в граматиці це А→х.