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1. Tropes: metaphor, metonymy, antonomaisa
Metaphor
Metaphor is the transference of the name of one object into another object
based on the similarity of the objects. Metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two
different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to
mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the
other which by nature is deprived of these properties. The creator of the metaphor
finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have
something in common. Metaphor can be represented by any notional part of speech:
Simple metaphor that expresses indiscrete notion may comprise a word, word
combination or sentence. Prolonged or sustained metaphor is metaphor that consists
of a number of sentences or even a paragraph. In this case the word that has been
used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph to realize their
figurative meaning and unfold the meaning of the first, initial metaphor. Below there
are examples of sustained metaphors that create visual landscape images:
Metonymy
Metonymy is transference of the name of one object into another object, based
on the principle of contiguity of the two objects. Both associated objects do not
necessarily posses common semantic features but should have common ground of
existence in reality. Metonymy used in speech or in literary texts is genuine
metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or
one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a
chance feature of the thing, for example:
Antonomasia
Antonomasia (or renaming – перейменування) is a lexical stylistic device that
lies in the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word. In other
words antonomasia is a kind of metaphor in which the nominal meaning of a proper
noun is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning of a common noun
acquires the new nominal component. As most stylistic devices antonomasia may
assume different shapes. The first type of antonomasia is the usage of proper noun
in the function of a common one. In the following sentence a proper noun Mary has
lost its nominal meaning and turned into a common noun denoting any female:
2. Tropes: epithet, oxymoron, antithesis
Epithet
Epithet is a figurative, expressive attribute that emphasizes the most prominent,
leading feature of a thing or phenomenon. The term epithet originated from the Creek
phrase “epiteton onoma” which meant an additional name, borrowed, artificial,
extra or supplementary nomination, for indeed the function of epithet is not only to
describe the object but also to add new features to it. The structure and semantics of
epithets are extremely variable. From semantic point of view epithets are fixed (or
associated), effective (or emotional proper) and figurative (transferred or
unassociated). Fixed epithets are epithets which due to the long and frequent usage
have become inseparable unities, fusions that are deeply rooted in folk poetic
traditions and that remain in modern language unchanged:
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of words which are semantically different. As a
result of such combination the object under description obtains characteristics
contrary to its nature. Oxymoron as a combination of semantically different notions
helps to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described
phenomenon as a dialectal unity. As a rule one of the two members of oxymoron
illuminates the feature which is universally observed and acknowledged, while the
other one offers a purely subjective, individual perception of the object. Oxymoron
makes the reader or hearer to reinterpret the sense of the utterance which is at the
same time striking, unpredictable and truthful, revealing the essence of the object in
question and pointing out its complicated nature. Oxymoron is the sort of playful and
witty effect of language usage, it seldom becomes trite. A few frequently used
oxymorons, all of them showing a high degree of the speaker’s emotional
involvement in the situation, as in damn nice, awfully pretty, жахливо гарний,
страшенно цікавий, are the rare examples of speech oxymoron. Oxymoron is a
powerful means of humour and satire:
Antithesis
Antithesis is another figure of contrast that stands close to oxymoron. The
major difference between them is structural: oxymoron is realized through a single
word combination or a sentence, while antithesis is a confrontation of at least two
separate phrases or sentences semantically opposite:
The essence of antithesis lies in the intentional emphasizing of two
contradictory but logically and emotionally closely connected notions, phenomena,
objects, situations, events, ideas, images. Antithesis makes the reader’s or hearer’s
impression stronger and the utterance more convincing and may be used alongside
with the comparison.
3. The problem of context in stylistics. Contextual meaning
Text is a highly organized structure the elements of which have value not only
as separate entities but also in their interrelations with other elements both inside and
outside the text. In general sense context can be defined as an environment of a
linguistic unit that facilitate the realization of certain properties of this unit. Two
types of context are generally differentiated: linguistic and extra linguistic, the latter
being understood as a situation of communication. Situational C can be
1. Single: some utterances are meaningful only in one single context and
meaningless in all the other,
2. Typical: some utterances that may even violate the norms of the literary
language can be meaningful only under certain conditions.
3. Social and historic.
Linguistic context is a set of conditions in which the meaning of language unit
is unambiguously realized: e.g. the hand of the clock, a piece for four hands, a farm
hand. The main function of the linguistic context is to eliminate the polysemy of the
word. Sometimes the linguistic context causes the phenomenon of desemantisation
(take offence, take charge, take medicine, take notice) However in certain contexts
the reverse process can be observed – so called hypersemantisation, the enrichment
of the language unit meaning, so that the word acquires alongside with its direct
meaning transferred meaning. The context that extends the meaning of the language
unit is called stylistic context.
Stylistic macro context – super phrasal unity : Once upon a time ago , about last
Friday, Winnie the Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name of Sanders.
What does "under the name mean?" asked Christopher Robin. "It means he has the
name over the door in gold letters and lived under it". But within the domain of
stylistic contexts of a great number of Ukrainian writers and poets it is transformed
into a system of complex images:
The notion of stylistic context is closely connected with the effect of
unexpectedness and anticlimax. An unpredicted language unit appearing within the
stylistic context against the reader’s expectations breaks the even flow of the text,
attracts reader’s attention and becomes foregrounded.
4.Meaning from a stylistic point of view. Stylistic devices based on the polysemantic
effect.
Meaning – the set of semantic features which make up the semantic structure
of the word and can be discovered only in the process of linguistic analysis. Each
time, the word is used in speech one or more semantic features from its semantic
structure are being realized to make up sense. We should study the linguistic
situation where units we want to define are.
Sense - the minimum variable semantic content of a word in speech, while
meaning is assumed to be a minimal invariant semantic content. When we speak
about polysemy, we mean that word can be used in different senses when distinctive
semantic components in meaning are realized in speech they make up the sense of
the word.
The two main types of word-meaning are the grammatical and the lexical
meanings found in all words. The interrelation of these two types of meaning may be
different in different groups of words.
Grammatical meaning – the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets
of individual forms of different words, as, e.g., the tense meaning in the word-forms
of verbs (asked, thought, walked, etc.) or the case meaning in the word-forms of
various nouns (girl’s, boy’s, night’s, etc.).
Lexical meaning - component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic
unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word, e.g. the same semantic component
denoting the process of movement.
Lexical meaning is viewed as possessing denotational and connotational
components.
The denotational component is actually what makes communication possible.
Users of a language cannot have any knowledge or thought of the objects or
phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is ultimately
embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning for all speakers of that
language, that is the denotational component .The connotational component
comprises the stylistic reference and the emotive charge proper to the word as a
linguistic unit in the given language system.
Polysemy exists only in language not in speech. Polysemy – total sum of many
contexts in which a word may occur, permits us to observe and record cases of
identical senses, cases that differ in sense. Monosemantic words, i.e. words having
only one meaning are comparatively few in number, these are mainly scientific terms,
such -as hydrogen, molecule and the like. The bulk of English words are
polysemantic, that is to say possess more than one meaning.
The problem of polysemy is mainly the problem of interrelation and
interdependence of the various meanings of the same word.
Polysemy viewed diachronically is a historical change in the semantic structure
of the word resulting in disappearance of some meanings (or) and in new meanings
being added to the ones already existing and also in the rearrangement of these
meanings in its semantic structure.
Polysemy viewed synchronically is understood as coexistence of the various
meanings of the same word at a certain historical period and the arrangement of these
meanings in the semantic structure of the word.
Zeugma – consists of combining unequal semantically incomparable words or
phrases. It is co –occurrence of syntactical connection of 2 or more words with other
unit. Zeugma is employed in humorous texts.
Він втратив майно і надію
Mary dropped a tear and her handkerchief.
Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression ‘play upon words’.
The semantic essence of the device is based on:
1. polysemy or homonymy: Visitor to a little boy: – Is your mother
engaged? – Engaged? She is already married;
2.similarity of pronunciation: John said to Pete at dinner: ‘Carry on’. But Pete
never ate carrion.
5.Syntactic stylistic devices based on the extinction of sentence model (repetition,
polysyndeton).
Repetition
Repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two or
more times in close succession. Skillfully used and justified repetition never creates
the redundancy of information. On the contrary the additional stylistic meaning that
arise as a result of repetition are indispensable elements of emotional and artistic
impact upon the reader or listener. Repetition is powerful means of emphasis, besides
it adds rhythm and balance to the utterance.
According to the placewhich the repeated word occupies in the sentence or text,
repetition is classified into several groups. Ordinary repetition. In ordinary repetition
the repeated element has no definite place in the utterance.
The reiterated element of the utterance may be supported by introduction of
other elements which specify and extend its meaning:
Successive repetition. Successive repetition is a string of closely following
each other reiterated units. This is the most emphatic type of repetition, which
signifies the peak of speaker’s emotions, or imparts the greatest logical significance
to the repeated element.
Anaphora. Anaphora is the repetition of elements at the beginning of each
consecutive syntactic structure:
The main stylistic function of anaphora is to create a background for
nonrepeated units of the utterance or the text, to give it logical and/or emotional
emphasis and to underline its novelty.
Epiphora.
Epiphora is the repetition of the final elements of each successive utterance.
The main stylistic function of epiphora is to foreground the final elements of
the utterances.
Framing. In framing the initial element of the utterance is repeated at the end
of the utterance. Thus the syntactic structure resembles a kind of a “frame”: between
the repeated words or word combinations there comes a middle part that explains and
clarifies the idea.
Polysyndeton
The arrangement of sentence members, the completeness of its structure
necessarily involves various types of connection between sentence components and
between sentences. Polysyndeton is stylistically motivated deliberate repetition of
conjunctions or prepositions:
6.Syntactic stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasmus, inversion. Rhetoric question.
Producing of two or more syntactic structures according to the same syntactic
pattern is known under the term parallelism. In parallelism both the whole sentence
or its part can be built according to the similar structural pattern:
Syntactic parallelism is widely spread in poetry and emotive prose. It creates
special rhythmical contour of the text, reinforces the semantic ties between the
utterances, increases the communicative, expressive and aesthetic value of the
successive utterances. Syntactic parallelism is one of the most favoured means of
logical and emotional intensification of the idea embodied in an utterance. It makes
speech persuasive, solemn and elevated and is a common feature of the publicistic
and oratory style.
Chiasmus Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the
similarity of a syntactical pattern in two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a
sentence, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two
successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel
construction, the word order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with
that of the other,
Inversion Inversion is a syntactic phenomenon of the deliberate changing of
word order in the initial sentence model. The English language has developed a fixed
word order which in the great majority of cases shows without fail what is the
Subject of the sentence. This fixed word order is Subject— Predicate — Object .
This predominance of fixed word order makes conspicuous any change in the
structure of the sentence and inevitably calls forth a modification in the stylistic
meanings.
There are two types of inversion: grammatical and stylistic. Grammatical
inversion is aimed at the change of the communicative type of sentence and has no
stylistic value.
Stylistic inversion is aimed at logical or emotional intensification of a certain
sentence element. It attaches the additional emotional colouring to the surface
meaning of the utterance. It is always semantically and stylistically motivated:
Rhetoric question Rhetoric question is an emotional statement or
negation expressed in the form of a question. Rhetoric question does not requires
any answer or demand any information but is used to emphasize the idea, to render
speaker’s emotions or to call the attention of the listener (reader) to the focus of the
utterance. In fact the communicative function of a rhetoric question is not to ask for
unknown but to involve the readers into the discussion or emotional experience, give
them a clue and make them to arrive at the conclusion themselves.
7. Graphical and phonetic stylistic devices.
Speaking about the inseparable unity of form and meaning of literary work it is
worth mentioning that its easthetic impact depends on phonetic and graphical
erangement of text elements and text as a whole. To create additional information in
a literary discourse sound instrumenting is often used alongside the specific graphical
representation. One of the most favoured graphical stylistic device in contemporary
advertising, mass media, and, above all, creative prose is graphon. Graphon is
intentional violation of graphical shape of a word or word combination.
The main function of graphon is to supply information about the speaker’s
origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, author’s
sarcastic attitude to his character, etc.
butler Yellowplush – (impresses his listeners with the learned words
pronouncing them as “sellybrated” instead of celebrated; ”benyviolent”
(benevolent); illygitmit” (illegitimate ) (Thackeray)
Graphon, thus , individualizing the character’s speech, adds to his plausibility,
vividness, memorability. It is a very good device for conveying the atmosphere of
authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act.
This flavour of informality and authenticity brought grahon popularity with
advertisers:
(1) Sooper Class Model – ad of car
(2) Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant
Graphical changes may reflect not only peculiarities of pronunciation but are
also used to convey the intensity of stress, emphasizing and foregrounding the key
words:
(1)Best jeans for this Jeaneration
(2)Наша вата – нова М’Якість
The graphical means of text imagery also include
all changes of the type(italics, capitalization), 
spacing or graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) , 
graphical representation of a line, etc. 
(1) Help! Help!HELP!
(2) Adieu you, old man, grey. I pity you, and I de-spise you (Ch. Dickens)
1.Methods of lexicological studies. Contrastive analysis.
The process of ling. investigation may be subdivided into several stages:
- observation: collection of the data;
- classification: orderly arrangement of the data obtained through observation;
- generalisation: formulation of hypothesis, rules, laws; One of the fundamental
test of the validity [перевірка правильності] of the generalisation is whether or not
this generalisation is useful in making predication.
Methods:
distributional analysis– is based upon the study of all possible environments
of a linguistic unit. The distribution of an element is the sum of all environmens in
which it occurs reletive to the positions of other elements. The meaning of the word
varies with the context. Distributional analysis is most helpful for the analysis of the
morphemic structure of words, the combinability of the morphemes and for the
analysis of free and stable word-combinations.
transformational analysis in lex. investigation may be defined as repartening
of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of
meaning of particular distributional strucrure. Word-groups of identical distributional
strucrure when repartterned show that the semantic relation between words and
consequently the meaning may be different. The rules of transform. anal. are rather
strict. There are many restriction both on syntactic and lexical levels. These are:
- permutation – the repattering provided that the basic subordinate relationship
between words and word-stems of the lex. units are not change: ‘His work is
excelent’ may be transformed into ‘his excelent work’ or ‘the excellence of his work’
- replacement – the substitution of a component of the distributional structre
by a member of a certain strictly defined set of lex. units. Replacement of a notional
verb by an auxiliary or link verb(he will make a bad mistake & he wiil make a god
teacheer) The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the second
one the verb to make can be substituted by to become . The fact of imposibility of
identical transformation of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of
the difference in their meaning.
- addition (expantion) may be illustrated by the application of the procedure of
addition to the classification of adjectives two groups: denoting inherent and noninherent qualities[1. John is happy. 2. John is tall. We add a word- group in Moscow.
We shall see that John is happy in Moscow has meaning while the second one is
senseless. That is accounted by the difference in the meaning of adj. denoting
inherent and non-inherent qualities.].
- delition – a procedure which shows wheather one of the words is
semantically subordinated to the other. [the word-group ‘red flowers’ may be
transformed into ‘flowers’ without making the it senseless]
compotential analysis- aims at revealing and organising the semantic
components of the words. It is used for various purposes:
- a detailed comparison of meaning;
- providing a more adequate basis for translation equivalences;
- the judjing of semantic combinability as an important feature of style;
In this analysis we proceed from the assumption that th smallest unit of
meaning are semes.
statistical analysis : Statistics describes how things are on the average. Statistic
approach is most helpful when we have large masses ofdata to analyse. A single
observation may not be reliable? whereas a correctly executed statistical study shows
tends, the most typical properties and correlations.
IC’s analysis: the aim of IC’s is to segment a set of lexical units into two
maximally independent sequences or ICs. Successive segmentation results in
Ultimate Constituents, which means that further segmentation is imposible for no
meaning can be found. This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in discovering
the derivational structure of words.
contrastive analysis The contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the features
of sameness and difference in lexical meanings and semantic structures of correlated
words in different languages. The contrastive analysis can be canted out at three
linguistic levels: phonology, grammar (morphology and syntax) and lexis
(vocabulary).
2. Morphological structure of English and Ukrainian words. Types of morphemes.
IC analysis the aim of IC’s is to segment a set of lexical units into two
maximally independent sequences or ICs. Successive segmentation results in
Ultimate Constituents, which means that further segmentation is imposible for no
meaning can be found. This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in discovering
the derivational structure of words. Morphemic analysis. An example of mor
analysis
by
immediate
constituent
analysis:
ungentlemanly→ungentlemanly→gentleman-ly→gentle-man→gent-le. Morphemes are subdivided into:
root & affixes. Affixes are subdivided into: derivational & functional. The stem
expresses the lexical meaning & in many cases it is also the root. Root is a semantic
core. Root & stem may coincide (book). Stems may be: =root stem (work)=derived
stem (beautiful)=compound stem (long-haired). Morphemes may be:=bound
morphemes (occur as part of words [conceive, receive])==free (function as a word
(friend))==semi-bound (function as an affixes & words [man, after]). Functional
affixes convey gram meaning, they build diff forms of 1 & the same word (sons,
son’s). Derivational affixes supply root with components of lexical meaning.
Differences between inflectional & derivational affixes - inf aff don’t change the
part of speech or the type of meaning (book-books); der aff change the type of
meaning of the form to which they apply & therefore create a new word (seasonseasonal). inf aff are combined with the stem after the der aff, der aff are combined
with the stem before the inf aff. (neighbor [root] – hood [der aff] – s [inf aff]). inf aff
has to do with productivity, they may combine with stems of dif categories; der aff
apply to restricted classes of stems (-ize+adj=verb). Difference between the prefixes
& suffixes: prefixes never change the part of speech.
3 Principal types of word-formation in E and in U
Word formation is the process of creating new words from the material you
already have.
Affixation- adding word building affixes to stems.
Affixation includes:
1.Prefixation (after-noon, co-operate)
2.Suffixation (act-or, poet-ry, exist-ence)
Compounding- Word produced by combining two or more stems, which occur
in language as free forms - classroom, timetable, weekend, sportsman, saleswoman.
Reduplication- doubling a stem. bye-bye, goody-goody.
Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combination of a verb and adverb or a verb and preposition
(or verb with both adverb and preposition).
Conversion- is a special type of affixless derivation where a newly-formed
word acquires a paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of the original
word.
N -> V, V -> N, A -> V
Молода, finger-to finger, a walk-to walk
Substantivation -Process in which adjectives acquire the paradigm and
syntactic functions of nouns - an official,the official, officials, our officials
Shortening
There exist two main ways of shortening:
-contraction (clipping) Nick (<Nickolas)
-abbreviation (initial shortening) UNO
Back-formation (reversion) - the derivation of new words by means of
subtracting a suffix or other element resembling it – sculptor < sculpt, action < act.
Blending-Formation of new lexical units by means of merging fragments of
words into one new word – smog – smoke+fog, drunch - drinks+lunch, хилитати.
Sound interchange (gradation) - Words belonging to different parts of speech
may be differentiated due to the sound interchange in the roof – food(n)::feed(v),
gold(n)::gild(v)
4. Compounding in English and Ukrainian. Types of compounds. Analysis in terms
of syntactic structure.
Compounding is one of the most productive means of word-formation both in
En and Ukr. Compound – lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and
functioning as a single word. 2 ways of forming: a) by the juxtaposition of the
determing and the determined parts; b) with the help of the linking/interfixal o, e, s
in Eng and o, e/є, у in Ukr. The largest group of compounds formed through the
juxtaposition of free root/stem words in Eng: mankind, peace-loving, nowadays. Eng:
compounds with prepositions and conjunctions used as connectors of different
roots/stems often referred to as whole phrases: commander-in-chief, out-of-date.
Ukrainian has only a few compound adverbs of its own and some nouns of foreign
origin of this type: де-не-де, Ростов-на-Дону, Франкфурт-на-Майні. Ukr has many
composite words, which are formed with help of the linking elements (-и, -й):
крутиголовка, перекотиполе, мати-й-мачуха. Eng: Anglo-Saxon, electro-therapy.
Several Ukrainian family names and geografical names have been formed from
word-groups or sentences as well: Непийпиво, Вишгород, Крутояри.
Compounding by juxtaposition of free word is considerably less productive in
Ukrainian: вагон-ресторан, медик-хірург, хто-небудь. Close to this - compound
nouns and verbs of coordinate nature: хліб-сіль. In Ukr: noun-compounds and adjcompounds: subject+action (e.g. водоспад, sunrise, headache, neboshyl,
padolyst)object+action (e.g. dorohovkaz, dushogub, losorub, shareholer, dishwasher,
pushbutton, perekotypole, vernydub)action+adverbial (e.g. pishohid, writing-paper,
babysitter, handwriting).
5. Semantic structure of English and Ukrainian words. Types of semantic
change
Words of expessing identical concepts may have different semantic str in
different la-s.
(Bloomfield, functional aproach) Meaning- is the situation in which the w is
uttered
Distinguish denotative meaning-espresses notional content of a w. and
connotative meaning –emotional content of the word. Words have semantic features:
animate/inanimate, male/female, human/noon-human. This approach gives us the
ability to predict what nouns can be used in what positions. (The .. is reading a book)
Words have semantic roles as well realized on the sentence level. A boy kicked
the ball: the boy-agent, the ball-theme. If the agent uses another entity in performing
an action then this entity performes the role of an instrument.
The definition of lexical meaning has been attempted more than once in
accordance with the main principles of different linguistic schools. However, at
present there is no universally accepted definition of meaning or rather a definition
reflecting all the basic characteristic features of meaning and being at the same time
operational.Thus, meaning is considered to be one of the most ambiguous and
controversial terms in the linguistic theory. This complex phenomenon has been
studied by many outstanding linguists. The suggested approaches can be grouped as
follows:
§
Analytical or referential definition of meaning
§
Functional or contextual def. of meaning
§
Operational or information- oriented def. of meaning.
The followers of Ferdinand de Saussure consider meaning to be the relation
between the object or notion named, and the name itself (referential approach).
The essential feature of referential approach is that it distinguished between
three components: the sound form, the concept and the actual referent (the part or
aspect of reality). The best known referential model of meaning is the so-called basic
triangle. This triangle with some variations underlines the semantic system of this
school:
…
Polysemy is a linguistic phenomenon occurring when one and the same word
can be used in two or more different senses. It’s a semantic universal inherent in the
fundamental structure of language. Polysemy is widespread both in English and
Ukrainian but is more characteristic for English. The frequency of polysemy depends
not only on purely linguistic factors but on cultural progress as well. Both in Ukr. and
Engl. the main source of the development of regular polysemy metaphoric and
metonymic transference of meaning. Polysemy exists only in the level of language
not in speech.
Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings. One
of them is the main (central) meaning, whereas the rest are associated (marginal)
meanings. Associated meanings of the word become evident in certain lexical and
grammatical contexts. Polysemantic words constitute the bulk of the English
vocabulary. E.g. face (n.) 1. the front of the head /the main meaning/. 2. the
expression of the countenance. 3. the main or front surface. 4. the surface that is
marked, as of a clock. 5. appearance; outward aspect. 6. dignity, self-respect /
Metaphor
The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference
of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient Greek and
Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from
one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word
acquires a derivative meaning.
It’s the process when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas,
actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the
inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these
properties. Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor
finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have
something in common.
Due to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating images.
An image is a sensory perception of an abstract notion already existing in the mind.
Consequently, to create an image means to bring a phenomenon from the highly
abstract to the essentially concrete.
The identification is most clearly observed when the metaphor is embodied
either in an attributive word, as in pearly teeth, voiceless sounds, or in a predicative
word-combination.
Metaphors can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus
metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quiteunpredictable, are
calledgenuine. Those which are commonly used in speech and therefore are
sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite
metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. (Genuine
metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e. speech metaphors;
trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system i.e. language proper, and are
usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.(ex.: 'a ray of hope' ' floods of
tears', 'a storm of indignation', 'a flight of fancy', 'a gleam of mirth', 'a shadow of a
smile')
Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and
contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of
association connecting The two concepts which these meanings represent.
Thus, the wordcrown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for 'the drink
in contains’,
woolsack for ' the Chancellor of the Exchequer who sits on it hand is used for a
worker; the cradle stands for infancy, earliest stages, place of origin, and thegrave
stands for death.
Metonymy used in language-inaction, i.e. contextual metonymy, is genuine
metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or
one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a
chance feature of the thing
Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are deciphered. In the
process of disclosing the meaning implied in metaphor, one image excludes the other,
that is, the metaphor 'lamp’ in the 'sky lamp of the night', when deciphered, means
the moon, and though there is a definite interplay of meanings, we perceive only one
object, the moon, this is not the case with metonymy. Metonymy, while presenting
one object to our mind, does not exclude the other. (Moustache)
Many attempts have been made to pin-point the types of relation which
metonymy is based on. Among them the following are most common:
1. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. In this case the thing
becomes a symbol of the notion, as in
n
The camp, the pulpit and (lie law For rich men 's sons are free. " (Shelley)/
2. The container instead of the thing contained: The hall applauded.
3. The relation of proximity, as in: "The round game table was boisterous and
happy. " (Dickens)
4. The material instead of the thing made of it, as in: "The marble spoke. "
5. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the
action or the doer himself, as in:"As the sword is the worst argument that can he used,
so should if he the last”.
6. Vocabulary as a system. Semantic group of words: synonym, antonyms,
homonyms.
We know that there is nothing accidental about the vocabulary of the language.
By the vocabulary of a language is understood the total sum of its words. Another
term for the same is the stock of words. Each word is a small unit within a vast,
efficient and perfectly balanced system. But we do not know why it possesses these
qualities, nor do we know much about the processes by which it has acquired them.
Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or
exactly the same in the meaning. There are a lot of synonyms in modern languages
and slight differences in their meaning and function justify their existence.
Among synonyms we find words which have the same meaning but can be used
in different senses in definite contexts. (There is a difference: sailor – mariner).
Words must harmonize with the context as appropriate to the linguistic situation. The
synonyms are not always interchangeable. As to the origin of synonyms we
distinguish:
a) synonyms which originate from the native element and denote different
shades of meaning: ex.: fast, speedy, swift; handsome, pretty, lovely;
b) synonyms created through the adoption of words from dialogs (bairn Scot.girl; charm - glamour).
c) synonyms which own their origin to follow borrowing ???????: (begin –
commence; heaven - sky)
d) synonymy connected with the non-literal figurative use of words (star-gazer
= dreamer)
e) synonymy connected with euphemisms and vulgarisms (drunk - elevated)
Absolute synonyms very rare – лінгвістика, мовознавство.
Antonyms – words opposite to homonyms. Antonyms are often helpful and
very valuable in defining the exact meaning of the given word and its synonyms. The
opposites of words do not always suggest themselves immediately.
Antonyms are words that have directly opposite meanings are called antonyms.
Antonyms fall into two main groups:
1) Root antonyms (those which are of different roots), e.g. long :: short,
quickly :: slowly, up :: down, love :: hatred, to start:: to finish, etc.
2) Affixal antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence express
semantic opposition), e.g. hopeful:: hopeless, faulty:: faultless, happy:: unhappy,
appear :: disappear, regular :: irregular, etc.
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic
variants: a dull knife:: a sharp knife, a dull boy :: a bright boy, a dull novel:: a
thrilling novel, etc.
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning, identical both
in sound and in spelling or only in sound or spelling. In spelling – homographs (light,
n – light, adj.), in sound – homophones (ex.: see – sea, meat – meet, some - sum)
Words identical in form but quite different in their meaning and distribution are
called homonyms.
The traditional formal classification of homonyms is as follows:
I. Absolute homonyms which are identical both in sound and spelling, e.g. ball
(м'яч) :: ball (бал); bore (свердлити):: bore (нудна людина); hail (град) :: hail
(окликати)
II. Partial homonyms subdivided into:Homographs which are identical in
spelling but different in sound, e.g.
bow /bou/ (лук) :: bow /bau/ (ніс корабля); lead /led/ (свинець) :: lead /li:d/
(вести); polish /polif/ (глянсувати):: Polish /'poulif/ (польський), etc.
1)Homophones which are identical in sound but different in spelling, e.g. key
(ключ):: quay (набережна); fir (ялина) :: fur (хутро); sow (сіяти) :: sew (шити),
etc.
Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one
should distinguish between:
1) Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g. club n.
(клуб):: club n. (кийок); bear v. (нести):: bear v. (терпіти); plane n. (літак) ::
plain n. (рівнина); light а. (легкий) :: light а. (світлий), etc.
2)Grammatical homonyms which belong to different parts of speech, e.g.
horse n. (кінь):: hoarse а. (хрипкий); row v. (гребти) :: row n. (ряд);
3) Homoforms which are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents,
e.g. bore n.:: bore (Past Ind. of bear); scent n.::
From the viewpoint of their origin, homonyms are divided into etymological
and historical.
Etymological homonyms are words of different origin. Their formal
coincidence is the result of various factors: phonetical changes in native and
borrowed words, changes in spelling, etc.
Historical homonyms are those which result from disintegration (split) of
polysemy. At present there is not any connection between their meanings, though
they can be traced back to the same etymological source, e.g. nail (ніготь):: nail
(цвях) < O.E. naeg(e)l; beam (промінь):: beam (балка, бантина) < O.E. beam.
7. Phraseological units: characteristic feature and principles of classification
Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or
partially transferred meaning.
There exist several different classifications of phraseological units based on
different principles.
According to the classification based on the semantic principle English
phraseological units fall into the following classes:
1. Fusions - completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups, e.g. to show
the white feather ("to betray one's cowardice"), to pull smb.'s leg ("to deceive
smb."), to bell the cat ("to take a risk for the good of others"), red tape
("bureaucratic delays"), a white elephant ("a present one can't get rid of), half
seas over ("drunk"), once in a blue moon ("hardly at all" or "hardly ever"), etc.
2. Unities - metaphorically motivated idioms, e.g. to make a mountain out
of a molehill ("to become excited about trifles"), to play second fiddle ("to
have a lower or less important position"), to wash one's dirty linen in public
("to tell people about one's hidden sins and faults"), a snake in the grass ("a
person with harmful intentions"; "a hidden enemy"), etc.
3. Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) - word-groups with
the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited, e.g. to
make friends (but not * to do friends or * to make comrades), to bear a grudge,
to break silence, to make sure, to take into account, unconditional surrender,
ways and means, now and then, etc.
4. Phraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar
quotations (still water runs deep = ‘тиха вода греблю рве’).
Phraseological units belonging to Classes 1-5 may be classified in accordance
with their structure and their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as parts
of speech. The classification based on the structural principles distinguishes
phraseological units into the following classes:
1.Verbal, e.g. to ride the high horse, to lose one's head, to drop a brick, to take
the bull by the horns, to take a fancy, etc.
2.Substantive, e.g. a grass widow, a drop in the bucket, a bull in a china shop,
the apple of discord, a maiden speech, etc.
3.Adjectival, e.g. high and mighty, high and dry, fair and square, as dead as a
door nail, as busy as a bee, etc.
4.Adverbial, e.g. from head to foot, by hook or by crook, by a long chalk, as
the crow flies, like a shot, in a trice, etc.
5.Interjectional, e.g. good heavens!, sakes alive!, by George!, my eye!, holy
smoke!, goodness gracious!
Phraseological units differ in their functions in the acts of communication and
therefore fall into four classes:
1.Nominative phraseological units of various patterns which correlate with
words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. a dark horse, ships that pass in
the night, quick on the trigger, to get a bee in one's bonnet, at the back of one's mind,
when pigs fly, etc.
2.Communicative phraseological units represented by proverbs and sayings,
e.g. the pot cannot call the kettle black; the race is got by running; no joy without
alloy; all one's geese are swans, etc.
3.Nominative-communicative phraseological units which include nominative
verbal idioms that can be transformed into a sentence (communicative)
structure when the verb is used in the Passive Voice, e.g. to put the cart before the
horse - the cart was put before the horse; to catch smb. with chaff- smb. was caught
with chaff; to break the ice - the ice is broken, etc.
4.Pragmatic phraseological units (interjectional idioms and response
phrases; cf. responsives in Part 4), e.g. My aunt!; Bless your heart!; By ginger!;
Does your mother know you're out?; The answer's a lemon, etc.
1. Noun and its grammar categories in English and Ukrainian.
The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by a
common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness".
Paradigmatic classes of nouns:
1) Common nouns
- Concrete Abstract Collective Names of materials Class nouns
2) Proper names
- Names/nicknames of people, nationals Family names Geographical
names Names of companies, newspapers
The category of number is a binomic opposition: singular opposed to plural.
Plural is formed in Eng by ending -s: [s], [z], [iz]. In Ukr each declension of nouns
has another ending. Eng: irregularity can be observed in compounds (passer-by =>
passers-by, take-off => take-offs). Allomorphic features: sound interchange (foot =>
feet); same forms (sheep, deer); borrowed noun inflexions (stimulus => stimuli,
phenomenon => phenomena). Allomorphic in Ukr is dual number (двоїна) in
connection with 2, 3 and 4 (берег– береги– береги). Peculiarities of Eng category of
number: 1) similar form for singular and plural; 2) different meanings (manner =
спосіб, manners = поведінка); 3) different meanings of two plural forms (brothers
vs. brethren); 4) plural form – singular meaning (news, linguistics, measles, etc.). In
both languages only those nouns which are countable can be combined with cardinal
numerals. Those nouns which are uncountable have as a rule a singular forms: 1)
collective (humanity = людство); 2) substance or mass (glass = скло); 3) abstract
(health = здоров’я). Some nouns are used only in plural: names of objects, the
structure of which possesses plurality (trousers). The nouns can express the category
of number differently (гроші = money, дріжджі = yeast, clothes = одяг).
The category of case: In Ukr a noun has a very complicated system of
declension. The system is made up in the opposition of 6 or 7 cases: nominative,
genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. In Eng the category
of case is represented through the binomic opposition of the common and possessive
case. The case of a noun is a form of a noun expressing interrelation between it and
another noun, pronoun or verb.
The category of gender: In Ukr all the nouns without exception irrespective of
the fact whether they denote living being or lifeless object possess the category of
gender: masculine, feminine and neuter. In modern Eng there is no division of nouns
ac. to gender. It can be expressed only by suffixes -ess, -ine, -ist, -er/or: widower,
actress, heroine. In Ukr the category of gender is expressed by zero and marked
inflexions; by means of modifying word (наш, наше, цей, такий, гарний, etc.).
2. Contrastive analysis of pronoun as a part of speech.
The pronoun as a part of speech correlates in Eng and Ukr with the following
parts of speech as their substitutes: 1) with nouns (he, she); 2) with adjectives (his,
her); 3) with numerals when they denote generalizing quantity (some, much, few).
Their Ukr equivalents кілька, декілька, кільканадцять, however, belong to
indefinite cardinal numerals.
Classes of pronouns:
·
Personal (особові): I, he, she, it, we, you, they; я, ти, він, вона, воно, ми,
·
Possessive (присвійні): my, his, her, its, our, your, their, mine, hers,
yours, ours; мій, твій, її, наше, ваше, ваш, їхня, їхнє, їхній;
·
Reflexive (зворотні): myself, himself, itself, yourself, yourselves,
·
Demonstrative (вказівні): this, that, such a, same; цей, той, ті,
·
Interrogative (питальні): who, whose, what, which, how much; хто, що,
·
Relative (відносні): who, whose, what, which; хто, що, який, чий,
·
Indefinite (неозначені): each, all, every, some, any; дехто, дещо, хтось,
·
Negative (заперечні): no, nobody, none, nothing, neither; ніхто, ніщо,
·
Reciprocal (взаємні): each other, one another; одинодного;
Some grammarians distinguish also:
·
Generalizing: all, each, every, both, either;
·
Distinguishing (видільні): other, another;
·
Indefinite-personal: one;
·
Defining (означальні): весь, всякий, сам, кожний, інший;
·
Strengthening: myself.
Ac. to the morphological structure: simple, complex and compound. There are
no derivative pronouns, since affixation is not used to form pronouns in both
languages.
Grammar categories of pronouns: The category of number: Eng: demonstrative,
distinguishing, reflexive, strengthening; Ukr: possessive, demonstrative, interrogative,
indefinite, negative, defining. Those Ukr have also the category of gender, absolutely
missing in Eng. The category of case in Eng pronouns is expressed unequally: some
have common and possessive cases (indefinite, reciprocal, distinguishing, indefinitepersonal). The rest have nominative and objective cases (personal, interrogative,
relative). In Ukr pronouns have the same 6 cases as nouns, but similar to numerals
they don’t have the common system of declinations. They are characterized by
supletivism by their declension (the absence of stable stem to which case endings are
added).
3. Contrastive analysis of English and Ukrainian verb. The category of the verb.
The verb has the largest number of features in common in Eng and Ukr. They
include the general implicit meaning of the verb, which serves to convey different
kinds of activity (go, read), processes (grow), the inner state of a person (feel,
bother), possession (have), etc. The verb generally functions as a predicate in the
sentence. The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are also three systems within
the verbids. The Ukrainian verb includes the conjugated verb forms – the verbs and
particles and non-conjugated verb forms – infinitives, dijepryslivnyky, and forms
ending with –но,-то(завдання виконано, лист написано).
The verb as a part of speech is characterized by the following properties in
English and Ukrainian:
the lexico-grammatical meaning of action/process in both languages.
Typical ste-building elements,such suffixes –ize,-en,-ify, the prefixes re-,
under-, over-, super-, sub-, mis-, un- in English language; in Ukrainian suffixes –ти, ати(перечитувати, пересилювати)
Grammatical categories: out of the six categories in English (person,
number, mood, aspect, tense, voice ) and in Ukrainian, grammatical categories of the
verb are closely connected with its meaning and its syntactic function. The category
of aspect and voice (категорії виду і стану)are characteristic of all verb forms. The
category of mood(категорія способу) is characteristic of verbs that can be
conjugated(читає, читай, читав би), the category of tense – of the indicative mood
verbs(читає-читав-читатиме), the category of person – of the imperative and
indicative mood verbs(читаєш- читаєте- читай -читайте), the category of number –
of all verb forms that can be conjugated.
Its typical combinability: a verb can be associated with nouns denoting
the doer and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb.
Its typical syntactic function of the predicate. The verbids have other
functions, but they are secondary predicates in secondary predication structures.
4. Non-finite forms of the verb in English and Ukrainian.
Non-finite forms of the verb can be used only as a nominal part of a compound
predicate and perform functions of other parts of a sentence. The common verbal
form is infinitive (the indefinite form of the verb), Eng possesses peculiar verbal
form – the gerund, which doesn’t have the equivalent in Ukr; in Eng there is
participle, whereas in Ukr – дієприкметник and дієприслівник.
The Eng infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier "to" (to come, to be
asked), whereas the Ukr infinitive is characterised by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, тися (бігти, носитися, їхать). Specifically Ukr is the diminutive infinitive formed
by combined suffixes: спатки, спатоньки, їстоньки.
Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and the
participle. The infinitive in Ukr has no perfect (perfective) passive form, no
continuous aspect form, no perfect active and perfect passive forms of the
Participle that are pertained to Eng. Cf. to have slept, to be sleeping, to have been
seen; having been asked/having asked, etc.
The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in Eng and Ukr
respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both
verbal and noun characteristics, the former being those of tense and voice (asking —
being asked) and the ability of taking an objective complement: I like reading books,
as well as the ability of being modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him.
The noun characteristics of the gerund: its functions in the sentence as subject, object,
the predicative part, the attribute, and as an adverbial modifier of manner. For
example, as subject and predicative: Deciding is acting. As object: He won't stand
beating. As an attribute: She found an opportunity of taking him away. As adverbial
modifiers:The rain poured down without ceasing. The gerund can also be a complex
subject, a complex object and other parts of the sentence (cf. His being ill is unknown
to me. That was his being ill that spoiled everything. I know nothing of his being ill).
The Ukr diyepryslivnyk remains an indeclinable verbal form. The
diyepryslivnyk may be formed from the present stem of the verb or from the
infinitive of both the transitive and intransitive verbs. The imperfective (present)
diyepryslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first
verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи;
працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи.
Perfective (past) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitival stems with the
help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the suffix -вши
that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which end in a
consonant: донісши; привізши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a vowel, the
suffix -вши is added: здолавши; побачивши.
The semantic and functional equivalents to the imperfective (present) and
perfective (past) diyepryslivnyks in English are indefinite or perfect participles (both
active and passive) performing the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time:
"...while working so hard he needed sea air"; or attending circumstances: Clara sat in
the cool parlour reading.; the adverbial modifiers of cause: "Being tired he thought of
sleep."; and that of result: ...having seen all that was to be seen he came out., etc.
The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally
coincide in both languages, though Ukr participles have gender, number and case
distinctions, which are lost by their Eng corresponding equivalent verbals. Cf. gender
and number categories: працюючий, працююча, працююче (колесо); number and
case: працюючого, працюючому, працюючим.
5. Functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian.
The number of functionals in the contrasted languages is practically the same,
the only exception being the article in English. 1) modal words (and modal phrases);
2) the preposition; 3) the conjunction; 4) the particle; 5) the interjection.
Modal words: meaning of "modality", used to express the speaker's judgement
concerning the action/event or object in the sentence (certainly, indeed, maybe,
perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно, може,
1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer tainly, of
2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps,
possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається)
3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate ly,
4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with
the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може,
можливо, мабуть)
Prepositions: Isomorphism is observed in the morphological structure. Simple
(прості): at, in, on; в, з, під; Compound (складні): inside, into, within; посеред,
поміж, із-за; Derivative (похідні): along, beside; внаслідок, завдяки; Composite
(складені): by means of, in spite of; на відміну від, в межах.
The only structural difference, therefore, is in the group of simple prepositions,
among which there are some Ukr prepositions consisting of a single consonant or
vowel (в, у, о, з).
Conjunctions are functional words realising the connection of homogeneous
parts in co-ordinate word-groups and sentences or linking subordinate clauses in
composite sentences. As to their structure, conjunctions are generally characterised
by isomorphism. The various types are as follows: 1) Simple 2)
Derivative/compound: 3) Composite (складені)
As to their syntactic functions, conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall
into two common-isomorphic groups: a) co-ordinating conjunctions and b)
subordinating conjunctions.Сo-ordinating conjunctions in the contrasted languages
fall into the following subclasses:
1. Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, neither... nor, as well as, both... and, not
2. Disjunctive (розділові) conjunctions denote in both languages sepa ration.
They are: or, either... orабо, ато, чи, або... або, чи... чи, то... то, чи то...чи то. 3.
Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yetале, проте, зате, однак, все ж and others.
4. Resultative (пояснювальні): so, henceтак, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме, як
от. 5. The causal conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English.
Subordinate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are of isomorphic
nature, i. e. common in both contrasted languages, too. They express different sense
relations and fall into the following groups:
1. Conjunctions of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, before, while,
2. Conjunctions/connectives of place and direction: where, wherev er, whence,
3. Conjunctions of cause or reason: as, because, since, seeing, бо, через те
4. Conjunctions of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing якби, якщо,
5. Conjunctions of purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, щоб, для того
6. Conjunctions of result: so that, that, так що, отож:, тож.
7. Conjunctions of concession: though, although, as, even if, even though,
Conjunctions of comparison: as, as...as, not so... as, than, as if, as though, як,
Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words specifying some
component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions
or prepositions, particles do not express any syntactic relations. Their function is in
both languages to emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they
specify by giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc.) to their
meaning/sense. As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted
languages may be: Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж,
егеand others; Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто,
все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи; Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз).
Quite common, although not always equally represented, are the semantic
groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely:
1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely,
2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце, онде, ген,
3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге,
4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in English and
Ukrainian: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, таки, аж, навіть, вже, ж,
5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні): not, never, no, не, ні,
6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not,
7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too(тож,
Іnterjections do not correlate with notions, they do not express any relations or
point to any connection with words in an utterance. Interjections are unchangeable
words or phrases expressing emotional and volitional reaction of the speaker on some
event. Hence, there are to be distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising
interjections, which express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or
repugnance, etc.
6.The simple sentences in English and Ukrainian.Parts of sentences
In simple sentence the subject can be expressed by the noun,pronoun,cardinal
numerals or other parts of speech which should be substantivized.There are
subjectless sentences which are practically not used in English.The formal subject
exists alongside with the notional one in E. The formal subject is expressed by the
word deprived of the lexical mean & is necessary to complete the sentence from the
structural point of view.
Notional subject expresses certain object & is used in personal sentences.
In U. subjectless sentences are widely used.The subject is often missing
in negative sentences.(Тут немає стола)
In E. the formal subject is usually expressed by pronoun”it” which is used with
a group of predicate.There are such types:-simple or compound predicate which point
out the natural phenomena; - with compound predicate which has modal or
evaluative meaning(It was difficult); - with compound predicate pointing the time or
space; - simple predicate expressed by the passive form of the verb(It is said, it is
believed)
In E. the role of subject can be performed by non-verbal part of speech(gerund)
There are several types of the compound sentences depending on the meaning
of their conjunction in both languages: - the copulative; - the disjunctive; - the
adversative; - the causative-consecutive (compound sent with the meaning of
suddenness; compound sent with asyndetically ajoined clauses )
The copulative sentences in E. are joined by following conjunctions: and,
neither…nor, not…but. In U.: і, або...й, та, та...й, і.. і, ні..ні. Unlike U. “i”, E ”and”
is also widely used with the copulative-adversative meaning which mostly
corresponds to the Ukr. conjunction “a”.
Disjunctive compound sent. are joined in E. with the help of such conjunctions as: or,
either..or.In Ukr.: або..або,чи..чи,то..то. In both lang. the connection between the
parts of such a sent. is very close & if to omit one part, the sent. would lose its sense.
The adversative compound sent is rendered into U. with the help of such
conjunctions
as
:
а,
але,
проте,
та,
так,все
ж.
In
E.:
or,but,while,still,nevertheless,however. It is worth to mention that conj. “a” in U. has
more shades of meaning than “але”.They are: - contrasting. – sequence of events. –
separate fulfilling of events. – conclusion. The E. conj.”while” has opposing similar
meanings to some U. “a” .
The causative-consecutive compound sent is rendered into U. with the help of
such conjunctions as: i,a.In E.: so, so that, for. In E. there is connective adverb
“therefore”.The second part of sentence expresses conclusion,confirmationor
consequence of the idea expressed in the 1st part of compound sentence.
7. Differences and similarities of complex sentensec in both contrasted languages
This type, of composite sentence has some isomorphic features of its own. They
are in the contrasted languages as follows: 1) the complex sentence has a
polypredicative nature; 2) it is characterized by the subordinate way of joining the
clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of
consecutively dependent clauses joined to the ihatrix clause or to each other
syndentically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection
includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating
connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some logicogrammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include predicative,
objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the corresponding
clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding position/place in
regard to the matrix clause.
The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between the
subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of relations
created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate wordgroups. Hence, there are distinguished the following typologically relevant groups of
subordinate clauses:
In English:1. Substantive-nominal: a)subject subordinate clauses;
b)predicative subordinate clauses; c)objective s.c. 2.Qualitatively-nominal:
a)descriptive attributive clauses; b)restrictive a.c.; 3.Adverbial clauses: of time,
perpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition, consession, result.
In Ukr.:1.Субстантивно-номінативні:а)підметові підрядні речення,
б)присудкові п.р., в)додаткові п.р. 2. Квалітативно-номінативні: а)описові
атрибутивні підр.реч., б)обмежуючі а.п.р. 3.Адвербіальніпідрядніречення:
часу, місця, мети, причини, способу, дії, умови, допусту, наслідку.
1.Cultural implication of the tr-ion process.
Translation is a communicative process, a process of conveying messages
across linguistic and cultural barriers. Tr. is a cross-cultural communication, a crosscultural understanding. Culture is a pattern of behavior, the way of being, living in
the world. There exist the following culture aspects: attitudes, values and believes.
Cross-cultural understanding is the understanding of ones own cultural heritage
and understanding of the culture of another country in addition to knowledge of a
language. Tr. implies that we have the capacity to enter into the mind, he world and
culture of the speaker or writer and that we can express their thoughts in the manner
that isn't only parallel to the origin, but also exceptable to the target l-ge.
L-ge study is increasingly viewed as providing not only contacts with the native
speakers but privileged access to their way of thinking, to their culture. Proficiency in
the foreign l-ge means effective communication which involves not only exchanging
but creating rapport and good will. It requires accurate as well as fluent l-ge
supported by a knowledge of the culture and society, a knowledge of how to observe
and analyze the culture, and the social-linguistic ability to interact and to perceive
non-verbal messages. When we speak about culture we are talking about the ability
to understand and be understood. Culture is the patterned way of thinking and
behavior. We enrich linguistic competence with the cultural one.(Claire Kramsh)
Language and culture go together, not dissociated from each other. This makes
a translation process (both oral and written) valid and crucial. Training of translators
is constructed on major categories: grammar and discourse, sociolinguistic and
strategic into that. These components make a main stream of translation. The first
two (grammar and discourse) mirror the language at work - its inner laws, substance
and function, efficiency of its units, intersentential relationship.
Sociolinguistic and strategic subcategories refer to communicative parameters social context, interaction of participants, goals, strategies, intentions.
Sociolinguistic factor is gaining stronger and stronger position in the training
process of translators. Nowadays cross-cultural aspects are on the par with
contrastive studies of languages, they both feed back training process, make it
efficient.
Cultural differences impact on language forms and functions. In this condition a
translator is to be aware of verbal and nonverbal behavior of a language communitybeliefs, values, manners, feelings, paralinguistic phenomena like gesture, posture,
facial expression, movement. In a nutshell he is to be on the alert with acceptable
/unacceptable things. Words like garments clothe the ideas, make them go. Enormous
effect depends on the proper usage of words, their explicit and implicit adequacy
2. Transformations in the process of tr.
The kind of major and minor alterations in the structural form of language units
performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in translation are referred to as
translator'stransformations. Transf.-it is the change in a source of tr-ion. Central-inwe don’t change the meaning, but change words, grammar. Kinds: Concretizationthe lexical transformation, in which a word with broader meaning is changed to
narrower. Usually used when there are words with broader meaning-thing,to
be,piece,to go,matter. EX: the focus is on the description of the selection process
itself-тут
увага
зосереджується
на
описі
самого
процесу
відбору.Generalisation-opposite to concretization, is used in translation of technical
or scientific texsts.EX: the first factories were driven by water-перші фабрики
працювали на воді.Addition-we add up the word or word combination in order to
specify the meaning.It is not the changing of the content. EX: non-members of
organizationare
invited
to
conference-країни,що
не
є
членами
організації,запрошуються для участі в конференції. Omission-some important
detail may be skipped in fawour of a rather important fact. EX: the proposal was
rejected and repudiated-пропозицію було відхилено.Anonymic-EX: to fail-не
вдаватися,he said nothing-він промовчав.
It is essential to recognize that source language text undergoes a number of
changes known as translation transformations. These are inter-language changes of
meaningful verbal signs.
Translation transformation, however arbitrary, can be observed on different
levels of language hierarchy: grammatical, lexico-semantic and stylistic.
Translation theory distinguishes several types of translation transformations.
The
most
traditional
among
them
are:
transposition/permutation,
substitution/replacement, omission, addition and compensation.
·
Transposition/permutation is a change in order of linguistic elements:
words, phrases, clauses and sentences in the Target Language as compared with
Source Language. This change may be caused by many reasons. Among them the
necessity of preserving intact the functional sentence perspective, which traditionally
may take different places in two languages.
·
Addition is resorted to when translating from the English text. Among the
reasons for the use of additional lexical units to render implicit meaningful elements
of the Source Language text are: a) compressed grammatical structures of the English
language, b) the discrepancy in the use of the plural and the singular forms of certain
nouns, c) the discrepancy in word-building and some others.
·
Differentiation can be defined as the replacement of a lexical unit of broad
meaning with a lexical unit of a narrower meaning. It is the most frequent device in
English-Ukrainian translation due to the misbalance between abstract and
desemantized words in the languages. There is a large group of words in English
vocabulary of wide semantic volume that are sometimes necessary to differentiate or
to make them more concrete in translation. Though there can be other possibilities,
e.g. you can omit them in your translation. The context and your background
knowledge will often help you to make the right choice.
·
Generalization is the process opposite of differentiation. It takes place
where a lexical unit of a narrower meaning in the Source Text is replaced by a lexical
unit of a broader meaning in the target language. The transformation occurs in both
English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English translation. When translating from English
into Ukrainian many word signifying exact time, size, height, address, etc. may be
rendered by words of broader semantic meaning, if no narrower equivalent exists or
accuracy is not required.
·
Omission is the process of omitting certain elements when translating
from the source language into the target language and is the opposite of addition. It
must be remembered though, that the translator cannot deliberately take out any
elements of the sense, which is also true in the case of addition. The translator may
omit only those lexical elements that repeat themselves in a certain way in the source
language according to its norms and become redundant in the target language when
translated according to its norms.
·
Substitution/ replacement is a kind of grammatical transformation, where
a grammatical unit in the source language is transformed into a unit with a different
grammatical meaning. Grammatical replacement may occur at any level of the
language and affects practically all types of linguistic units: word forms, parts of
speech, sentence elements, sentence types, types of syntactic relations.
3. Idiomatic English: what kind of l-ge is it?
The word ''idiom'' have different meanings. One of them is: idiom is a sequence
of word which is semantically and often syntactically restricted so that it functions as
a single unit and the meaning of the individual words can't be combined to produce
the meaning of the idiom. This is that we also call ''phraseological unit''. But there is
also another definition of the word ''idiom'': Idiom - linguistic usage that is
grammatical and natural to native speakers of a l-ge. Idiomatic l-ge - the way of
expression typical of a person or a group in their use of l-ge, the way the native
speaker use the l-geFor example, idiomatic English is the way of speaking typical of
a native speaker of the Eng. l-ge. Idiomatic l-ge of the youth - the way how the
young people are talking. In the process of tr-ion there are no strict grammar rules
but crucial is idiomatic l-ge. It goes without saying that a good translation should aim
towards an equivalence in meaning between the source language and the target
language. Another important aim is to produce texts that are idiomatic in the target
languageю Examples of Eng. idiomatic l-ge: sth (prices) is subject to change - може
змінюватися; market economy country - країна з ринковою економікою;
Ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Ukr.- надзвичайний і
повноважний посол; notary public -держю нотаріус; hard coat cash only- лише
готівка; by appointment only- лише за попередньою домовленістю; to serve as
(translator)- працювати; these documents are treated as confidential -ці документи є
конфіденційні; to be not much of a expert - не бутии знавцем; technical writingділоводство, Ukrainian studies- українознавство; no soliciting - товари не
пропонувати; in layman's l-ge - простою мовою; staff only - стороннім вхід
заборонено; no entry; private property/ no trespassing - приватна
власність/перебування заборонено, advice ones decision - повідомити рішення,
minor children - неповнолітні, to become effective from (law) - вступати в дію,
набирати чинності, wet paint! - увага помальовано…
4. Approaches to trans. asyndetic noun cluster.
Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which are very often
used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are word-groups consisting of
two, three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to word-groups) like yarn
production, yarn production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and
child care.
Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure,
they are always in subordinate relation to each other, they function as adjunct
(attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies the left-hand
(initial) position and the latter the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster.
So is the structural complexity of many asyndetic noun clusters, which may
make their identification as two-, three-, four-, etc. componental word-group
uncertain. In other words, a difficulty may arise as to how the asyndetic clusters
should be treated - as the NN, NNN, or NNNN, etc. word-groups. This is of
importance not so much for the allotment of a noun cluster, which can partly be seen
from the following examples: wage increase підвищення зарплати; 10 percent
wage increase підвищення зарплати на 10%, US policy політика США; US
foreign policy зовнішня політика США; the House of Commons debate дебати в
палаті громад; the recent House of Commons debate останні дебати в палаті
громад.
The adjectival components, therefore, can extend the asyndetic noun cluster and
change the starting point of their translation without changing in any way their
asyndetic nature. Neither do they change the quantitative correlation of noun
components in the clusters. The components like North-West, the U.S.A., the U.K.,
and the like are to be treated as single heads or single adjuncts, since they function as
a single Ncompound, or Nabreviated/Nproper, etc.
there may be various approaches to rendering the lexical meaning of asyndetic
noun clusters. These approaches are predetermined by the following main factors: 1)
by the number of nouns making up the cluster; 2) by the structure of the adjunct and
head (or both these components); 3) by the semantic relations between the
constituent parts of the asyndetic noun cluster which may be local, temporal and
others by nature; 4) by the presence or absence of the preceding adjective, participle,
possessive pronoun or ordinal numeral.
There can be suggested some ways of faithful translation of asyndetic
nounclusters into Ukrainian. Each of these ways may be predetermined by one of the
following three factors:1) by the lexical meaning of the component parts; 2) by their
structural hum and 3) by the meaning of the cluster as a whole
5. Style and register in tr-ion.
There is a universal agreement that the aim in the work of translator is to
produce as nearly as possible the same effect on the reader of translated text as had
been produced on the reader of the original text. Language fulfils an extremely wide
variety of functions in human society. It is by means of language that we shape and
express our thoughts, convey our feelings and wishes. Language in its written and
oral form is the instrument of mass media-press, television and cinema. For the
realization of various language functions in speech there have developed various
types of language, each of which is characterized by special lexical, grammatical and
phraseological means.
We single out the following styles: colloquial, academic, official or business,
literary. There are many definitions of the term ''style''. And one of them is - style is a
manner of writing, speaking or performing. In choosing one type of vocabulary
rather than another, the whole feel and character of the text may change. Saying that
the text has a certain 'feel and character', brought about by the various choices we
make in speaking or writing, is just another way of referring to the text's style. In the
process of tr-ion expressive connotation of the original text should be in accordance
with the expressive connotation of the translated text.
Register is the amount of formality in l-ge. There are two major registers:
formal and informal. The first one is applied in different formal situation. For
example, in business conferences, political negotiations, different documents, judicial
matters, TV news etc. The second one is used in everyday speech, films, fictions etc.
E. G. father(f) - daddy(inf); child(f)- kid(inf); to die(f)- to kick the bucket(inf)…As a
general rule, written texts tend towards the formal end of the scale, while spoken
language is usually found at the informal end. But this does not mean that written
texts cannot display features of informal style, or involve conscious choices that
seem to make them more like spoken language.
It goes without saying that a good translation should aim towards an
equivalence in meaning between the source language and the target language.
Another important aim is to produce texts that are idiomatic in the target language. In
connection with style, we may add a third ideal aim: to achieve equivalence of effect.
This means that, as far as possible, the target language text should have the same
effect on its readers as the source language text has on its readers. In other words, a
text that appears as formal or technical in Ukrainian should not read as informal or
colloquial in English. This, in turn, has a bearing upon our choice of vocabulary,
sentence structure, word order, etc.
6. Background knowledge as a professional factor in tr-ion/int-ing.
Translation is a communicative process, a process of conveying messages
across linguistic and cultural barriers. There are three essential qualities of translator:
1. l-ge proficiency 2. cross-cultural understanding and awareness3. .background
knowledge. No doubt the translator needs a very considerable knowledge of
phonology, grammar, vocabulary of the l-ge, but he/she should also know a good
deal about literature, history, traditions and customs of English speaking people. The
knowledge shared by all the representatives of the given l-ge or ethic community and
which is closely connected with the knowledge of national culture is called
background knowledge. Background knowledge in its broad interpretation is
practically all the knowledge which is at the communicants' disposal by the moment
of communication. Proceeding from this background knowledge can be subdivided
1) knowledge common to all mankind (e.g. everybody knows what wind, birth, time,
2)regional knowledge (e.g. not all inhabitants of the tropics know what snow is);
3) knowledge possessed only by the members of a certain ethnic and language
community (nation): John Bull- a nickname of the English;
4)knowledge possessed only by the membersof a locally or socially closed
(Granta - the local name of the river Cam as it flows through Cambridge;
5) knowledge possessed only by the members of a given micro community,
such as a family, a class of students or a professional group, etc. (e.g. nicknames
known to a small group of people, some events in the life of these groups, etc.).
For example, all Americans are undoubtedly aware of the fact thatOval
Cabinetis the working office of the US President in the White House; 'the Hill' is
actually the Capital Hill, which dominates Washington, D.C., and where the
Congress buildings and Supreme Court stand; 'Bobby' is a common nickname for a
policeman, Marks&Spencer is a chain store selling high-quality clothing and food
products in England ; it is known all over the country, the same as Harrods.
Certainly, background knowledge is formed in the process of learning. The role
of. literature in acquiring background knowledge is very significant. Literature does
not only perform an aesthetical function but also serves as an abundant source of
country study information, as it gives an optimum amount of varied material. There
exists a definite list of folklore and fiction works, which every American or
Ukrainian should by all means familiarize himself with. Every educated Englishman
or American would at once recognize in two word combinations of words an allusion
to the titles of well known books written by famous authors: Proverbs, sayings and
quotations also refers to the background knowledge as a-cultural heritage of the
nation.
7. The notion of realia in the process of translation.
The source language words may express an abstract or concrete concept, which
is completely unknown in the target culture. Such concepts are often referred to
'culture-specific' or in other, words they are called realia. Practically speaking, by
realia one can mean everything, which for its adequate description requires either an
encyclopedic reference, or schematic presentation or some information known to
native speakers but unknown to foreigners. In translation theory by realia 'words',
'lexical units' adding occasionally 'word combinations' are meant (steppe, kozak).
However in the majority of cases realia are represented by words and nominative
word combinations. It is quite logical to include abbreviations in realia as the former
constitute contracted nominative combinations (e.g. VIP-very important person).
Abbreviated names are especially difficult for translating. Stylistically realia belong
to the national literary language and this makes them different from scientific terms,
professionalisms, localisms, slangy words, etc. In linguistic sciences, including
theory of translation, realia classification is, naturally, based on the linguistic
principle. Depending on the language level, realia may be denoted either by words
(proper and common names) or by phraseological units (fixed phraseological units,
winged words, figurative expressions). Let us examine in detail a group of realia
consisting of proper names. Here belong:1. Place names connected with some events
in the life of the given nation Hastings- the town in the UK. near which William the
Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxon King Harold in 1066 .
2. Personal names, which play one of the most significant parts in the native
speakers' background knowledge.
Geographical Realia
a) names of physical geography objects including meteorology:prairie, canyon,
tornado, etc.
b) names of geographical objects connected with human activity:
causeway - a raised roadway, as across water or marshland.
c) plant names:honey-dew . d) animal names: coyote, grizzly
Ethnographical Realia
Everyday life realia include: a) food, beverages and the like: hamburger, blood
mery
b) dwelling, furniture, utensils:grandfather's clock- a pendulum clock enclosed
in a tall, narrow cabinet
c) shops and other places:drugstore- a retail shop where medicines and
miscellaneous articles (as candy, magazines, cosmetics) and usually refreshments (as
at a soda fountain) are sold;
Transport:
a) means of transportation:double-decker
b) organization of labour:truck farming- producing vegetables for the market;
c) leisure and recreation:dude ranch- a kind of resort;
Culture and Art:
a)Literature: the titles and characters of the most popular works of literature,
aphorisms, winged words, allusions, etc. b) folk-lore: c) dance and music d) theatre)
holidays f) mythology g) name of residents of different places: Thanksgiving Day,
Buck House( Buckingham Palace), country music…
Socio - Political Realia:
a) territorial units: country, state, county b)Socio-political life:
societies, organizations, etc 2) social phenomena and movements, their
representatives (here also belong the names of various clubs, cultural and educational
organizations) 3) ranks, degrees, titles, direct address, emblems: 4) offices and
educational institutions and their activities 5) class signs and symbols. E. G. bachelor,
the Executive Office
8. Interpreting as a specific type of speech behavior.
Interpreting is the oral rendering of spoken words from one l-ge into another.
Int-ing includes note taking techniques, memory management and proper speech
delivery. Inter-ing is an intercultural communicative decision-making process. Some
assumes that any person who knows more than one l-ge can automatically interpret
or translate. Nothing is further from the truth. The process of interpreting involves
delicate decision making at every step on many levels. Advanced l-ge skills are only
the beginning. Tr-on and int-ing is a meeting between l-ges and cultures.
Inter-ing as well as tr-ion is a decision-making process because we have to
choose appropriate grammar constructions, vocabulary items, style and register to
make our tr-ion/int-ing proficient and faithful. But the peculiarity of int-ing that
differs it from tr-ion is that we should choose appropriate grammar constructions,
vocabulary items, style and register of translated matter on the spot, we have no time
to consider everything properly, to hesitate and have no opportunity to use the
dictionaries. An interpreter is to obtain in a quick mental grasp what is being said to
render it quickly into another language. He should do his work with discretion, great
presence of mind and psychological understanding. One should always think of the
ways what and how to say it. That is why we should have just perfect l-ge skills,
know all the peculiarities of l-ge and grammar, to know the idiomatic l-ge, have a
good background knowledge and knowledge of culture. Proceeding from this the
following qualities are identified as essential for good interpreting
Language skills. the depth of linguistic proficiency.
Cultural knowledge is universally acknowledged. Interpreters need to be
acutely aware of cultural differences. They should be both linguistic and cultural
intermediaries .
Analytical skills. Scientist stresses how important it is to analyse a speech
before interpreting it.. Analysis is an intrinsic part of the interpreting process, rather
than an ancillary tactic.
Listening and recall. In interpretation memory and understanding are
inseparable, the one is a function of the other.
Interpersonal skills. A heavy emphasis is put on the interpersonal skills of
interpreters, the mode of direct personal contacts with their clients, delegates of
conference, businessmen, people from all walks of life ranging from factory workers
to housewives / farmers / refugees... Conference interpreters are encouraged to
develop these skills unlike interpreters sitting in their booths addressing faceless
bureaucrats in a disembodied voice.
Ethical behaviour code has the greatest impact on the interpreter's work in legal
settings. Ethics are a major consideration for all interpreters. Interpreters should
understand their role and exercise. Good judgement attune to the importance of
interpreted issues.
Speaking skills. The public speaking is indeed a key component in the training
of all types of interpreters . Effective speaking skills range from quality of voice to
choice of idiom, vocabulary, phrasing. What comes out of the mouth of the
interpreter and the way it comes out are very important in the overall effectiveness of
the interpretation.
Subject knowledge is badly needed to interpret accurately. Some understanding
of the subjects presupposes an adequate discussion, let alone interpretation. All
experts on interpreting recognize the need of proper technical terminology and
content knowledge in relevant fields.
All interpreters must demonstrate the qualities listed above, regardless of where
and for whom they interpret.
9. Equivalence in translation: major types and techniques.Types of interpreting.
Interpreting is the oral rendering of spoken words from one l-ge into another.
There several types of int: simultaneous, consecutive, liaison, media, business and
other. Simultaneous interpreting suggests providing the target-language message at
roughly the same time as the source-language message is being produced.
Insimultaneous interpretation the interpreter is isolated in a booth. He speaks at the
same time as the speaker and therefore has no need to memorize or jot down what is
said. As this type of work is particularly tiring and stressful the rule of thumb is that
interpreter should be able to have a break after 45 minutes of continuous work. The
process of analysis-comprehension and that of reconstruction-expression are
telescoped. The interpreter works on the message bit by bit, giving the portion he has
understood while analysing and assimilating the next text.
Inconsecutive interpreting the interpreter waits until the speaker has finished
before beginning the interpretation. The interpreter does not begin speaking until the
original speaker has stopped. He has time to analyse the message as a whole, which
makes it easier for him to understand its meaning. He speaks to his listeners face to
face and therefore he actually becomes the speaker.
There functionswhispered interpretation in case when equipment for
simultaneous interpretation is not available. One participant speaks and
simultaneously an interpreter whispers into the ear of the one or maximum two
people who require interpreting service.
Conference interpreting is equated with simultaneous interpreting these days,
though interpreters must be prepared to perform in the consecutive mode as
well.Conference interpreting enables the participants to communicate with each other
in a seamless fashion, making the language barrier almost imperceptible.
Seminar interpreting takes place in meeting and small conferences. The basic
difference between conference interpreting and seminar interpreting is the size of the
meeting.
Escort interpreting refers to the services provided for government officials,
business executives, investors, observers, and the like who are conducting on-site
visits. This interpretation is marked by the spontaneity and the broad spectrum of
situations interpreters may find themselves in (formal meetings, tours of factories,
cocktail parties). The mode in consecutive, limited almost to a few sentences at a
time.
Media interpreting in performed at press conferences, publicity appearances /
interviews / films / videos / TV / radio conferences.
Court interpreting refers to services provided in courts of law, legal cases of
any sort.
Business (commercial or trade) interpreting refers to business people
discussing business matters (welfare / medical / legal rubric) through an interpreter.
Interpreting settings range from arts, sports, tourism, recreation to parents
negotiations or government to government meetings of delegations. Business
interpreting may entail either consecutive or simultaneous interpreting. Signlanguage interpreters are called upon to interpret with increasing frequency in
commercial settings.
Medical interpreting (alternation terms are healthcare interpreting, hospital
interpreting) encompasses a variety of situations. Cf. routine consultation with a
physician, emergency procedures, prepared childbirth classes, support for complex
laboratory testing, industrial injury claims, personal injury lawsuits.
Education interpreting is a rapidly growing field of specialization. Either
consecutive or simultaneous interpreting may be required in the classroom for
students who cannot understand the language of instruction, between teachers and
parents at school board meetings and disciplinary hearings.
Qver-the-Phone interpreting (OPD or remote interpreting refers to services
provided over telephonic links (video links included). OPI is mostly done
consecutively, in telecommunications technology simultaneous interpretation is more
prevalent.
Community interpreting enables people who are not fluent speakers of the
official language (s) of the country to communicate with the providers of public
services so as to facilitate full or equal access to legal, health, education, government
and social services. There is little consensus about the definition of quasisynonymous terms (liaison, ad hoc, three-cornered, dialogue, contact public service,
cultural interpreting).
Community interpreting is considered as an umbrella including both court and
interpreting and community interpreters are considered as amateurs and wellmeaning but misguided as "do-gooders".
Liaison interpreting it is a business int-ing, also int-ing for trade conventions.
Usually refers to activity of one interpreter who accompany an individual.
1. Додавання ймовірностей.
Правило додавання: Нехай А і В – скінчені множини такі, що А∩В=Ø,
|А|=m і |В|=n. Тоді |АUВ|= m+n. Вибір правил, за допомогою яких
обчислюється ймовірність складної події, визначається тим, несумісними чи
сумісними є елементарні події, що утворюють складну подію. Ймовірність
появи однієї з декількох попарно несумісних подій дорівнює сумі ймовірностей
цих подій: P(A+B)=P(A)+P(B). Проте, якщо дві події сумісні, то ймовірність
їхньої суми обчислюється як сума ймовірностей цих подій мінус добуток
ймовірностей цих подій-одночасної появи:( іноді P(A)=1-P( ).Сума
ймовірностей двох протилежних подій дорівнює одиниці. При обчисленні
ймовірності суми декількох сумісних подій використовують правило, за яким
ймовірність появи хоча б однієї з декількох сумісних подій дорівнює різниці
між одиницею і ймовірністю одночасної появи (добутку) всіх протилежних
подій. Прогнозування ймовірностей лінгвістичних подій при повторенні
дослідів. Для побудови алгоритму роботи імовірнісного автомата, який
розпізнає усну мову, доводиться обчислювати ймовірність збігу хоча б однієї із
словоформ тексту, що обробляється, з відповідною лексемою, заданою у
словнику автомата. Припустимо, що потрібно визначити ймовірність того, що
хоча б одно з двох вибраних слів з тексту буде займенником він. А – перша
поява займенника, В- друга. Подій А і В сумісні Ймовірність появи займенника
він – 0,0099: Р(А+В)=0,0099+0,0099-0,0099*0,0099 Якщо розпізнавальний
автомат аналізує 10 словоформ і треба визначити, що хоча б одна з них –
займенник він, то Р(С)=1-(1-0,0099)10.
2. Залежні лінгвістичні події та умовні ймовірності.
Мовознавство порівняно рідко має справу з незалежними подіями, тобто
такими подіями, ймовірність появи яких не залежала від ймовірності появи
іншої лінгвістичної події – такі ймовірності називаються безумовними.. Мова
йде про залежні та умовні ймовірності: навіть ймовірності появи букв, фонем,
складів, морфем тощо є умовними, оскільки залежать від позиції цих
лінгвістичних об’єктів у слові, словосполученні і реченні. Розглянемо приклад
лінгвістичного досліду. Словоформа мамам(Д. в множини від мама) складена з
букв різної абетки. Картки з буквами цієї словоформи покладені в урну.
Здійснюється випробовування, яке полягає у витяганні картки з буквою і
поверненні її в урну. Подією В вважатиметься витягання буквим у першому
випробовуванні(тоді ¯В буде витягання з урни нем, тобто витягання букви а),
подією А – витягання букви а у 2у випробовуванні(тоді ¯А буде витягнення не
а, тобто букви м). оскільки витягнена в перший раз буква повертається в урну,
то перед другим дослідом кількість букв в урні не зміниться. Тому ймовірність
події А є безумовною, оскільки вона не залежить від того, чи була витягнена до
цього з урни буква м(подія В) чи буква а(подія ¯В), і залишається =2/5.
безумовною є і ймовірність події В. Якщо змінити умову досліду і не повертати
витягнену букву назад до урни, то ймовірності одержати у 2у, 3у і наступних
випробовуваннях букву а або м будуть істотно залежати від того, які букви
були витягнені перед цим з урни. Нехай результатом 1го випробування була
буква м; тоді ймовірність витягнути у 2у випробовуванні букву а=1/2. у тому ж
випадку ймовірність витягнути 2й раз букву а=1/4. Аналогічна ситуація
виникає при визначенні ймовірності появи букви м у 2у витягуванні за умови,
що у 1й раз була витягнена буква м або а. Отже, події А та В є залежними, а
їхні ймовірності умовними. Умовна ймовірність події А за умови, що
відбулося декілька подій В, позначається Р(А/В). Величина умовної
ймовірності завжди міститься в тому ж проміжку, що і величина абсолютної
ймовірності, тобто 0<=Р(А/В)<=1
3. Правило множення ймовірностей і обчислення ймовірностей мовних
елементів
Кожен текст або його частину можна розглядати як сумісну появу деякої
лінійної послідовності лінгвістичних подій – сумісну появу ланцюжка
словоформ, послідовності складів, ланцюжків фонем або букв. Визначення
ймовірностей появи цих ланцюжків ґрунтується на теоремі множення
ймовірностей. Ймовірність сумісної появи двох подій дорівнює добутку
ймовірності першої події на умовну ймовірність другої, обчисленої за умови,
що перша подія відбулась: Р(АВ)=Р(А)Р(В/А) Для незалежних подій теорема
спрощується: ймовірність добутку двох незалежних випадкових подій
дорівнює добутку їх безумовних ймовірностей: Р(АВ)=Р(А)Р(В).
Ймовірність добутку залежних подій А, В, С дорівнює добутку
ймовірності однієї з них на умовну ймовірність другої, обчислену за умови, що
перша подія відбулась, і на умовну ймовірність третьої, обчислену за умови,
що дві попередні події відбулись P(ABC) = P(A)P(B/ A)P(C/ AB). Я-0, 032
пробіл-0,174 p(probil jj)=P(pr)*P(ja/pr)=0, 032 *0,174
4.Визначення загальної ймовірності лінгвістичної події за формулою
повної ймовірності
Якщо лінгвістична подія А може відбутись разом з однією і тільки однією
з n несумісних подій Н1, Н2..., які утворюють повну групу подій, то для
визначення ймовірності події А використовується формула повної ймовірності:
Несумісні події Н1, Н2 називається гіпотезами. Таким чином, ймовірність
події А дорівнює сумі добутків ймовірності кожної гіпотези на ймовірність
події при здійсненні цієї гіпотези. Формула повної ймовірності
використовується для обчислення загальної ймовірності лінгвістичної події за
умови, що відомі її ймовірності у вузько-тематичних вибірках.
5. Апріорні та апостеріорні ймовірності. Вимірювання ймовірностей
лінгвістичних гіпотез
Досі ми мали справу з так званими апріорними ймовірностями
лінгвістичних подій. Ці апріорні ймовірності встановлювались інтуїтивноемпірично або теоретично до здійснення досліду, виходячи з наших знань про
умови цього досліду. Наші відомості про умови досліду звичайно не повні,
тому апріорні ймовірності є ймовірностями деяких лінгвістичних гіпотез про
результат експерименту. Результат експерименту як правило змушує здійснити
переоцінку наших гіпотез і надати їм нові – апостеріорні ймовірності. Р(Н) –
апріорні ймовірності гіпотез, А- подія, яка з’явилась в результаті досліду.
Необхідно визначити як потрібно змінити ймовірності лінгвістичних гіпотез у
зв’язку із появою події А. Використовуємо формулу Байєса (або ф-лу
ймовірностей гіпотез) Р(Н/А)=
6. Комбінаторний підхід до визначення кількості інф-ї
Введення поняття ентропії дає можливість проводити кількісне
вимірювання інформації. Дійсно, в результаті проведення досліду A ми
отримаємо нові відомості, тобто деяку інформацію. Одночасно знання
результату досліду знімає повністю або частково ту невизначеність, яка була до
його проведення. Тому правильно припустити, що знята в результаті досліду A
ентропія дорівнює кількості одержаної інформації, тобтоН(А)=І(А). тоді
випливає, що к-сть інф-ї, отриманої від випробовування з S рівно можливими
результатами, визначається рівністю І0 = log2 S. К-сть рівно можливих
результатів визначається звичайно шляхом дослідження комбінаторики
елементів і зв’язків, які характеризують дане лінгвістичне явище. У зв’язку з
цим ця методика є комбінаторним підходом до визначення к-сті інф.
Імовірнісний підхід. Якщо лінгвістичне випробовування передбачає нерівно
ймовірні результати, то ентропія такого досліду і отримана від нього к-сть інф-ї
будуть відрізнятися від аналогічних величин для досліду з рівно ймовірними
результатами. Обчислення ентропії та інф-ї випробовування з нерівно
ймовірними закінченнями здійснюється на основі таких міркувань.
Використовуючи відомі правила логарифмування перепишемо вираз І 0 = log2 S
у вигляді І0 = - log2 (1/S). Тут 1/ S – це ймовірність р кожного закінчення досліду.
Якщо дослідження нерівно ймовірні, то кожне закінчення має свою ймовірність
рі .Тоді індивідуальна к-сть інф-ї Іі = - log2 рі . Тоді середня к-сть інф-ї Ĩі = - рі ·
log2 рі. загальна інф-ї визначається наступною рівністю: І = -Σрі · log2 рі = Σ Ĩі.
7. Проста схема незалежних випробувань. Формула Бернуллі
Проста схема передбачає тільки два результати досліду: появу або не
появу ознаки A. Прикладом такої схеми є повторна вибірка з тексту
приголосних (A) і голосних ( A ) фонем.
Припустимо, що в деякому тексті з n фонем є m приголосних і n-m
голосних. За схемою повторної вибірки проводиться N незалежних
випробувань, які полягають у послідовному випадковому витяганні фонеми з
тексту. Потрібно визначити ймовірність події, яка полягає в тому, що серед
витягнених N фонем рівно х виявиться приголосними, причому порядок
слідування голосної і приголосної фонем байдужий. Вважатимемо появу
приголосної подією А, а появу голосної – подією А¯. Визначимо ймовірності
появи голосної і приголосної. Р(А)=m/n=р, З(А¯)=(n-m)/n=q. Тепер знайдемо
ймовірність того, що при N незалежних випробувань подія А появиться рівно х
разів, якщо ймовірність появи цієї події при кожному окремому випробуванні
стала і дорівнює р. Для цього складемо всі можливі схеми, які утворять
послідовність з появи х разів події А та N – х разів не появи цієї події. За
теоремою множення ймовірність появи кожної схеми складає р хqN – x, а
кількість таких схем дорівнює кількості сполук з N елементів по х, тобто С Nx.
Звідси випливає, що ймовірність появи події А рівно х разів у серії N
незалежних випробувань складає
За допомогою цього виразу, який називається формулою Бернуллі, і
здійснюється імовірнісне прогнозування результатів у простій схемі
незалежних
випробувань.
Часто для розв'язування лінгвістичної або інформаційної задачі необов'
язково визначати всі ймовірності появи даної події 0,1,2,...,N разів. Достатньо
вказати найбільш ймовірну кількість появ цієї події. Розглянемо : Зі
збільшенням х величина РN(х) зростає і при деякому х0 (воно називається
модальним значенням) досягає свого найбільшого значення РN(х0). Після цього
зі
збільшенням
х
ймовірність
РN(х)
спадає.
Щоб визначити модальне значення х0 необхідно скористатися такою
нерівністю Np+p-1≤x0≥ Np+p.
8. Повторення незалежних випробувань в тексті. Поліноміальна схема.
При дослідженні механізмів породження тексту результати окремого
лінгвістичного випробування не мають великого значення. Вивчення взаємодії
системи, норми та ситуації есплікується за допомогою моделей теорії
ймовірностей, які передбачають здійснення масового експерименту, при якому
одна і та сама лінгвістична подія повторюється багато разів. Ці випробування,
які повторюються, утворюють серії, в кожній з яких подія з’являється або не
з’являється певну кількість разів. Поліноміальна схема. Якщо лінгвістичне
випробування має декілька результатів, то їх імовірнісне прогнозування
здійснюється за допомогою поліноміальної схеми. її математична модель
будується так. Припустимо, що деяке лінгвістичне випробування може мати
один з к різних попарно несумісних результатів А1, А2,...,Ак. Ймовірність
кожного з них позначимо відповідно через Р(А1)=р1, Р(А2)= р2,..., Р(Ак)=рк.
Оскільки подія А1+А2+…+Ак є достовірною, то р1+р2+ …+рк=1. Здійснимо N
незалежних випробувань і визначимо ймовірності того, що подія А1 з'явиться
х1 разів, подія А2 - х2 разів,..., подія Ак - хк разів, де х1, +х2 + … + хк = N.
Вказаний результат одержується різними шляхами, кожний з який відповідає
різним представленням х1 разів результату А1, х2 разів результату А2,…,
хкразів результату Ак. Ймовірність появи кожної такої комбінації дорівнює
р1х1р2 х2…ркхк. Загальна кількість таких комбінацій дорівнює добутку
СNх1СNх2…СNхк, який приводиться до виразу
. Звідси одержуємо, що
при N незалежних випробуваннях ймовірність одержати х1 разів результат А1,
х2 разів результат А2,...,хк разів результат Ак дорівнює
, де 0≤xі≥N, а
.
9. Формальні породжувальні граматики
Алфавіт V – це скінчена непорожня множина елементів, які називаються
символами. Слово(або речення) над V – це ланцюжок скінченої довжини
елементів з V. Порожній ланцюжок – це ланцюжок, який не містить символів;
позначається через Λ. Множина всіх ланцюжків називається мовою. Мови
можуть бути задані різними способами. Один з найголовніших – це
використання граматик. Граматика складається з множини символів різного
типу та множини правил побудови слів. Формальна породжувальна граматика –
це четвірка об’єктів G=(V, T, S, P), де V – алфавіт, який складається з
термінальних(Т) та нетермінальних елементів(N); Т – множина термінальних
елементів, які є неподільними елементами алфавіту і не можуть бути замінені
іншими, позначаються маленькими лат. буквами; S – початковий еле-т, з якого
завжди починаємо будувати ланцюжок; Р – множина правил побудови
ланцюжків.
10. Типи граматик (класифікація за Н.Хомським).
Продукція, яка також називається правилом перетворення, дає можливість
заміняти одну послідовність символів іншою. Граматики із фразовою
структурою (ГФС) класифікуються за типами продукцій.
0 Обмеження на продукції w1 – w2
1 Немає обмежень
2 |w1|<=|w2|, або w2=пуста множина
3 W1=A, де А – нетермінальний символ
W1=A та w2=aB або w2=a, де А,В – не термінальні символи, а –
термінальний символ, або S – пуста мн
W – довжина ланцюжка, тобто кількість символів у ньому. Граматика
типу 2 має продукції лише у формі А–w2, де А – не термінальний символ. Ця
граматика називається контекстно вільною, оскільки нетермінал А може бути
замінений послідовністю w2 у довільному ланцюжку щоразу, коли він
зустрічається, тобто не залежно від контексту. –
Граматика типу 1
називається контекстно залежною. Коли у такі граматиці є продукція lAr–lw2r,
у якій хоча б один з ланцюжків l, r відмінний від ^, то не термінал А може бути
замінений ланцюжком w2 лише в оточенні l та r, тобто у відповідному
контексті. –
Граматика типу 3 називається регулярною. Ця граматика може
мати продукцію лише у формі А–аВ, А– а, S–^, де А,В – не термінали, а – не
термінал.
11. Дерево виведення
Виведення у мовах, породжених контекстно вільними граматиками, може
зображатися графічно з використанням орієнтованих кореневих дерев. Ці
дерева називають деревами виведення або синтаксичного розбору. Кореню
цього дерева відповідає початковий символ. Внутрішнім вершинам
відповідають не термінальні символи, що зустрічаються у виведенні. Листкам
відповідають термінальні символи. Форми Бекуса-Наура Для контекстно
вільних граматик окрім звичайного існує ін. спосіб задання – форми БекусаНаура. Продукції контекстно вільних граматик мають у лівій частині один
символ (нетермінальний). Замість того, щоб виписувати окремо всі продукції,
можна об’єднати в один вираз продукції з однаковим символом у лівій частині.
У такому випадку замість символу → у продукція використовується символ ::=.
Усі нетермінали при цьому заключаються у трикутні дужки. Праві частини
продукцій в одному виразі відокремлюються одна від одної символом |.
Наприклад, продукції А→ Аа, А→ а, А→ АВ можна зобразити таким одним
виразом у формі Бекуса-Наура: ‹А›::=‹А›а|а|‹А›‹В›.
12. Скінчений автомат з виходом. Способи задання
Скінчений автомат M=(S, I, O, f, g, s0) складається з:
•
Скінченої множини станів S;
•
Скінченого вхідного алфавіту І;
•
Скінченого вихідного алфавіту О;
•
Функції переходів f: S x I→ S;
•
Функції виходів g: S x I→ O;
•
Початкового стану s0.
Скінчений автомат може бути заданий двома способами: 1. За допомогою
таблиці станів, яка містить значення функції переходів f та ф-ї виходів g для
всіх пар (s, i), де s є S, і є І. 2. За допомогою діаграми станів, яка є орієнтованим
графом з поміченими дугами. Кожна вершина графа відповідає стану. Дуга
позначається вхідним і вихідним сигналами, які відповідають заданому цією
дугою переходу з одного стану в інший.
13. Скінченні автомати без виходу (детерміновані). Способи завдання.
Скінчений автомат без виходу – це п’ятірка М=(S,I,f,s0,F), яка містить:
скінчену множину S станів
скінчений вхідний алфавіт І
функцію переходів f: S x І →S
початковий стан s0
підмножину F с S, елементи F називаються заключними станами.
Скінчений автомат без виходу може бути заданий: Таблицею станів,
Діаграмою станів, заключні стани на діаграмі позначаються подвійними
кружечками. Ці автомати називаються детермінованими, оскільки для кожної
пари стан - вхідний символ існує єдиний наступний стан, який задається
функцією переходів.
14. Недетермінований скінчений автомат без виходу. Способи задання
У недетермінованих автоматах може бути декілька можливих наступних
станів для кожної пари стан – вхідний символ. Недетермінований скінчений
автомат без виходу – це п’ятірка M=(S, I, f, s0, F), де:
•
S – скінчена множина станів;
•
І – скінчений вхідний алфавіт;
•
f – ф-я переходів, яка кожній парі стан-вхідний символ ставить у
відповідність множину станів;
•
s0 – початковий стан;
•
F - підмножина S, де F – множина кінцевих станів.
Автомат може бути заданий:
•
Таблицею станів;
•
Діаграмою станів, заключні стани на діаграмі позначаються
подвійними кружечками.
15. Зв’язок між регулярними граматиками та скінченими автоматами.
: Для того, щоб мова була регулярною, необхідно і достатньо, щоб існував
скінчений автомат, який її розпізнає. Правила переходу від скін. автомату до
формальної граматики: 1. Мн. терм. символів – мн. вхід. символів Т=І, 2.
Множина не термінальних символів – множину станів N=S, 3. Початковий
символ – початковий стан S=S0. 4. Якщо в автоматі є перехід із стану А в стан В
по вхідному елементі х, то в граматиці це А→хВ, 5. Якщо в автоматі є перехід
із стану А до заключного стану, то в граматиці це А→х.