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Personal Development:
A Review of the School-Based Evidence for
the Efficacy of Teaching Personal
Development in Post-Primary Schools
Alissa A. Lange
Queen’s University, Belfast
CCEA
29 Clarendon Road
Clarendon Dock
Belfast BT1 3BG
Telephone: (028) 9026 1200
Textphone: (028) 9024 2063
Fax: (028) 9026 1234
E-mail: [email protected]
Contents
1. Executive Summary
4
2. Introduction
5
3. Social Emotional Learning (SEL) / Personal Social Education (PSE)
10
3.1 Literature reviews
10
3.2 Selected specific programmes
13
4. Mental Health Promotion
16
4.1 Literature reviews
16
4.2 Selected specific programmes
19
5. Substance Abuse and Violence Prevention
21
5.1 Literature reviews
21
5.2 Selected specific programmes
24
6. Sexual Health Promotion
27
6.1 Literature reviews
27
6.2 Selected specific programmes
28
7. Other Programmes Promoting Health
30
7.1 Literature reviews
30
7.2 Selected specific programmes
32
8. Benefits of Teaching Personal Development: Summary
34
8.1 School Outcomes
34
8.2 Social Emotional Outcomes
36
8.3 Health Related Outcomes
37
9. What Makes Programmes Work?
40
10. Conclusion
44
11. Further Information
46
12. References
49
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Key Words Used in This Document
Below is a brief glossary of some specialized terms used in this review.
cognitive – the mental processes of perceiving, thinking, and remembering.
meta-analysis – the use of statistical techniques in a systematic review to integrate the results of
included studies. A meta-analysis can show the strength of an effect of interventions. For
example, for all studies on drug abuse prevention included a review, a meta-analysis would tell
on average how effective they are on preventing drug use.
meta-cognitive skills – skills which involve thinking about thinking. The ability to self-monitor
learning is well-developed in skilful learners (Shepard, 2001).
prosocial behaviour–behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society.
The underlying goal or motive that initiates and drives the behaviour rather than the actual
outcome of the behaviour is what makes the behaviour prosocial.
SEL – Social Emotional Learning is the process of acquiring the skills to recognize and manage
emotions, develop caring and concern for others, make responsible decisions, establish positive
relationships, and handle challenging situations effectively (http://www.casel.org).
school ecology - all concrete environmental aspects of a school, both in and outside of the
classroom, which are closely connected to curriculum and instruction, and can influence teaching
effectiveness and development of students.
universal approaches – universal approaches to interventions are those aimed at whole classes
or groups. These can be contrasted with programmes which only target at-risk populations, or
those who have existing problems or conditions.
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1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Research has shown multiple benefits of teaching Personal Development in post-primary
schools. Positive outcomes for students have been identified for programmes aiming to teach
moral development, social skills, caring, coping skills, personal health and safety, sexual health
and conflict resolution skills, and prevent substance abuse, violence, and problem behaviour.
The benefits were either reported by students or staff (e.g., classroom participation), or observed
or measured by researchers (e.g., attendance records, pre- and post-tests of sexual health
knowledge). Some of the benefits found for students include the following:
School-based improvements in
Attendance
School commitment
School behaviour
Standardized test scores
Exam marks
Personal competency or social emotional improvements in
Self-esteem
Conflict resolution skills
Assertiveness
Coping skills
Social problem solving skills
Health outcomes including
Decreased depression
Decreases in substance abuse
Increase in knowledge about drugs
Decreased smoking
Decreases in risky sexual behaviours
Healthier eating habits
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The positive changes in knowledge, behaviour and attitudes mentioned above are dependent
upon a number of factors. The following factors all impact on the effectiveness of PD
programmes:
Teaching style and classroom environment
The physical environment and the general atmosphere in the school
Quality and length of implementation
Resources and training
Organizational structure and leadership
Specific methodological themes emerged from the literature that characterized successful
programmes. The following recommended strategies were reported for teaching topics
corresponding to those found in the revised Northern Ireland curriculum:
Knowledge alone is not enough, although important information and facts must also be included
Participatory, interactive teaching methods should be used
Generally, developing positive skills and competencies is more effective than directly trying to
reduce negative behaviours
Programmes involving multiple domains (school, home, community) are generally more
successful than those involving the classroom alone
Longer term programmes tend to be more successful than short-term projects
The school and classroom environment are key
A holistic approach, involving the whole school is better than one limited to the classroom
The quality of implementation is crucial; fully implemented programmes are more likely to
succeed than partially delivered programmes
Carefully planned, theory- and research-based programmes shown to be effective will be more
likely to produce benefits than those not based on theory and research, or those without evidence
of effectiveness
A broad review of relevant literature and practice would suggest that using appropriate teaching
and learning approaches with sufficient support and training, teachers can productively implement
the PD curriculum in Northern Ireland. Teachers have the opportunity to help students develop
skills which can improve well-being, social interactions and school behaviour and performance
while they are in school, and promote success in later life.
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2. INTRODUCTION
New elements of the Personal Development curriculum will become statutory for Key Stage 3 in
2007 in Northern Ireland. To support the revised curriculum, CCEA commissioned this document
to compile research-based evidence demonstrating the benefits of PD teaching to students
between the ages of 11-16, focusing on ages 11-14.
Teaching Personal Development requires a different approach to classroom management,
involving more interactive and conversational methods. These approaches might challenge
existing power or authority structures within the classroom where active learning approaches are
not so widely used. Some of the topics explored in PD may be controversial and sensitive to
students and teachers alike, such as the consequences of early sexual activity. In addition,
teachers may feel a tension between requirements in basic skills teaching and broader personal
development goals (Stipek & Byler, 1997).
Although teaching Personal Development may require changes, there is an abundance of
research showing that schools will be most successful in their educational goals when they
include academic, social and emotional learning (Berkowitz & Bier, 2004; Elias, Zins, Weissberg,
Frey, Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler, Schwab-Stone & Shriver, 1997; McCarthy, 1998; Wang,
Haertel & Walberg, 1997), or character education (Berkowitz & Bier, 2004). In fact, social
emotional or psychological aptitudes may be the most important factors influencing school
performance (Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1993).
In addition to academic outcomes, teaching the skills and information found in the Personal
Development curriculum also can help both prevent risky behaviours and promote positive
behaviours (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak & Hawkins, 2004). In other words, helping a child
to develop positive social, emotional, critical thinking skills not only decreases the chances that
they will engage in problem behaviours (e.g., cigarette smoking), but it also increases the
chances they will engage in beneficial and healthy behaviours (e.g., healthier eating & improved
exam scores).
This report summarizes existing research which illustrates positive outcomes of teaching aspects
of the revised Personal Development curriculum to post-primary students. The curriculum
encompasses a wide range of concepts and competencies. Programmes in this review include
those aimed at improving social emotional skills and moral development (Section 3), promoting
mental health (Section 4), decreasing rates of substance abuse and violent behaviours (Section
5), reducing risky sexual behaviours (Section 6), and improving other aspects of health (Section
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7). Section 8 summarizes the benefits found in the review, while Section 9 details the recurring
themes in the literature leading to effective instruction.
Each section begins by discussing existing literature reviews in an area relevant to the Personal
Development strand. Reviews synthesize multiple programmes that have similar aims in order to
determine best practice and common outcomes. The second part of each section highlights some
specific programmes which have been properly evaluated and have shown to be effective in
schools with the target population.
Inclusion Criteria
Studies included in this review were limited to those relevant to students aged 11-16, although
some overlap with other age and year groups was common. Programmes were also limited to
teacher-delivered programmes (except where noted), because this is and will be the primary
method of delivery of the PD curriculum in Northern Ireland.
Only universal programmes - those taught to whole classes, not to specifically at-risk groups were discussed. This requirement was used for a number of reasons. First, universal instruction
is and will be the method of delivery in schools in Northern Ireland for the PD materials. Second,
universal programmes focused on controversial behaviours (e.g., drug use), which target the
general school population appear to be more successful than those aimed at at-risk youth
because they are less stigmatising. Third, what works well with a few students appears to work
well with most. Fourth, targeting specific individuals with arbitrary cut-offs (e.g., what categorizes
someone as being at-risk for developing a drug problem?) can lead to students with problems not
receiving adequate help, because they just miss a cut-off (Weare & Gray, 2003). Finally, studies
which try to target risk groups are problematic because for some areas, such as drug use, the list
of risk-factors is incredibly long (Morgan, 2001).
It should be noted that while there are some excellent studies included from the UK and Ireland,
many well-documented, well-designed studies have been conducted in the United States.
However, the convergence of evidence from multiple studies across countries is growing, and
would suggest that programmes would be worth implementing or adapting for use in the UK
(Weare & Gray, 2003).
While there are extensive case studies and anecdotal evidence supporting the teaching of social
emotional development, this paper focused primarily on peer-reviewed research studies and
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critical reviews or meta-analyses of peer-reviewed studies. These are the most rigorously tested
and reliable findings. There are most likely other well-evaluated studies that were not included,
and excellent programmes which have not yet been evaluated. Non-inclusion does not
necessarily mean that these programmes are weak or non-effective. Due to budget restrictions,
this review could not be exhaustive or systematic in nature. Rather, the aim was to locate wellstructured and evaluated programmes showing the effects of teaching elements covered in the
PD curriculum in Northern Ireland.
Finally, it should be mentioned that research in teaching social emotional competencies, coping
skills, drug refusal skills, etc., is referred to by many different names in the literature depending
on the specific type of programme, the part of the world it is conducted, and on the researcher’s
or school’s perspective. The Personal Development curriculum falls under the umbrella of
Personal Social Education (PSE) in Northern Ireland, but other nomenclature includes Social
Emotional Learning (SEL), Social Physical Health Education (SPHE), Sexual Health Education
(SHE), Personal Social Health Education (PSHE), positive youth development, moral education,
character education, etc.
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3. SOCIAL EMOTIONAL LEARNING (SEL)/
PERSONAL SOCIAL EDUCATION (PSE)
3.1 SEL/PSE: Literature Reviews
There are multiple and seemingly diverse aspects of the PD curriculum (e.g., substance abuse
prevention, social and emotional health, sexual education, relationships, moral education).
However, research has shown that teaching methods and aims which are most effective in one
domain, tend to be applicable to other seemingly unrelated areas. The most effective drug abuse
prevention programmes teach some of the same skills and abilities (social, emotional, mental
health, relationship skills, etc.) as those promoting mental health or sexual health (Greenberg,
Weissberg, O’Brien, Zins, Fredericks, Resnik & Elias, 2003; Morgan, 2001).
There is an abundance of evidence supporting various academic benefits of teaching Personal
Development in schools. Research shows that students who engage in positive relationships and
social interactions tend to achieve above average academically (Osterman, 2000). Emotional and
social competence are widely recognised as important for educational achievement (e.g., Elias, et
al., 1997). Zins, Weissberg, Wang and Walberg (2004) reviewed academic outcomes related to
teaching social emotional health, and multiple outcomes are evident ranging from increased
attachment to school to improved exam scores. Some programmes discussed in Zins, et al.
(2004) are highlighted in this paper in Section 3.2 & 4.2.
School-based positive youth development programmes also have been shown to have positive
academic and non-academic effects. Positive youth development programmes were
characterized by Catalano, et al. (2004) as encouraging one or more of the following constructs:
promoting social, emotional, cognitive, behavioural and moral competence, and school bonding;
fostering self-efficacy, self-determination, spirituality, clear and positive identity, belief in the
future, resilience and prosocial norms, provides recognition for positive behaviour and
opportunities for prosocial involvement. Programmes reviewed by Catalano, et al. (2004) showed
positive outcomes such as better health behaviours, greater assertiveness, problem solving,
increased social skills, among others. Four of the school-based programmes highlighted in this
review are detailed below: Growing Healthy (Section 7.2), Life Skills Training, PATHS project
(Section 3.2), and Project ALERT (Section 5.2).
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Elias, et al. (1997) described the following ‘essential characteristics of effective SEL
programming’:
Carefully planned, theory- and research-based
Teach skills that are applicable to every day life
Address emotional and social dimensions of learning
Coordinated, integrated, unified programming linked to academic outcomes
Address key implementation issues, such as classroom environment
Include more than one domain, such as home and community
Design should include continuous improvement, evaluation and dissemination of findings.
Longer, multi-year programmes are more likely to be helpful than short-term lessons (Lantieri &
Patti, 1996).
Moral Education
Research has shown that caring psychologically safe supportive and cooperative learning
environments which promote sharing and social and emotional learning can result in benefits for
students. These include improved social emotional skills, better academic outcomes (Schaps,
Battistich & Solomon, 2004), improved cognitive problem-solving skills, more prosocial conflict
resolution techniques, lower rates of drug use and delinquency (Solomon, Watson, Dellucchi,
Schaps & Battistich, 1998), increased sense of community and commitment to school (Battistick,
Solomon, Watson & Schaps, 1997), and increased student engagement and attachment to
school (Osterman, 2000). Engagement and attachment to school have been identified as
important in influencing academic performance (Osterman, 2000; Berkowitz & Bier, 2004) and in
preventing risky behaviours (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992). Students who describe their
classrooms as including a caring teacher and students who help each other were more likely to
participate in class and to finish homework (Murdock, 1999). Some of these studies began with
younger students, but most involved students up to at least age 12.
In a review of developing values, attitudes and personal qualities, Halstead & Taylor (2000) report
that teaching caring in schools leads to longer-term caring of adolescents (Chaskin & Rauner,
1995), and that providing positive caring adult role models is important in children learning caring
behaviours. A project designed specifically to help children become more caring by thinking about
prosocial norms and values is The Child Development Project (Schaps, Battistich & Solomon,
2004). Details of this project can be found below in Section 3.2.
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Research has shown that prosocial behaviour is linked to academic performance (e.g., Haynes,
Ben-Avie, & Ensign, 2003; Pasi, 2001; Wentzel, 1993). Wentzel (1993) found that students’ GPAs
(overall rating representing marks received from school exams) were predicted by prosocial and
antisocial behaviour. That is, students that engaged more often in behaviours such as sharing,
cooperation, helping others, are more likely to score higher on exams.
Solomon, Watson, and Battistich (2001) reviewed the research on teaching moral development in
schools. Projects either focus on direct or indirect methods. Direct approaches teach morals and
values directly, such as courage, respect, honesty, etc. Indirect approaches encourage students
to become more active democrats, critically thinking about morality, in order to develop into
principled and caring community members.
Both methods have shown benefits. For direct approaches, improvements for students in the
target age range include teacher-reported improvements in ethical conduct and increased
understanding of moral concepts (Leming, Henrick-Smith & Antis, 1997). For indirect approaches,
benefits include improvements in moral reasoning (Higgins, 1980; Higgins, Power & Kohlberg,
1984), increase in school values, increases in norms for integrating people from different
backgrounds and norms for attendance (Reimer & Power, 1980; Higgins, Power & Kohlberg,
1984), improved teacher-assessed sociability, teacher- and student-reported social skills (Trianes
Torres, Munos Sanches, Sanchez Sanchez, 1995). Two programmes, a direct (Heartwood) and
an indirect (Just Community) programme, are highlighted below in Section 3.2.
3.2 SEL/PSE: Selected Specific Programmes
Heartwood
This direct approach to moral education involves teaching 7 ‘universal’ ethical values: courage,
loyalty, justice, respect, hope, honesty, and love. The programme uses multicultural stories to
demonstrate the various values, and develop students understanding and commitment to each.
Outcomes for students in late elementary school (ages 9-12) included increased understanding of
principles and improved teacher-rated ethical conduct, although no differences were found in
ethical sensibility (Leming, Henrick-Smith & Antis, 1997).
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Just Communities
The norms and moral atmosphere of a school, as well as moral discussions and active student
involvement were the target of this programme. Teachers act as facilitators by encouraging roletaking, focussing on issues of fairness and morality and highlighting or discussing moral
reasoning. This programme was developed based on theories of child moral development and
has been implemented multiple countries, including the USA, Hungary and Germany.
The programme resulted in improvements in moral reasoning for participants (Higgins, 1980;
Higgins, Power & Kohlberg, 1984), increases in school values, positive changes in norms for
integrating people from different backgrounds and norms for attendance (Reimer & Power, 1980),
increased likelihood of participants seeing their peers and themselves as making prosocial
choices (Higgins, Power & Kohlberg, 1984).
PATHS
The PATHS curriculum was developed 20 years ago to provide a comprehensive curriculum to
teach social and emotional development (Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004) and prevent
disruptive acting out behaviours. While PATHS starts with younger pupils, the programme can be
run with students up to age 12. Based on existing theories of child development, PATHS seeks to
develop basic emotional literacy, peer relations and problem solving. The programme has been
extensively evaluated on emotional, behavioural and academic outcomes.
Specific outcomes include increases in students’ scores on cognitive skills tests, ability to plan
ahead and solve complex tasks, cognitive flexibility and low impulsivity with non-verbal tasks.
The Child Development Project in California
Although the CDP begins with younger children, it is implemented with students up to age 12.
The programmes has been thoroughly developed and evaluated, including following students for
years after the intervention. Caring psychologically safe learning environments which promote
sharing and SEL can result in improvements to students’ social emotional skills and to academic
outcomes. The programme was conceived to create a more caring learning environment to help
students develop more prosocial, supportive and friendly behaviour and more caring attitudes and
behaviours.
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Results showed that students in the programme demonstrated more prosocial classroom
behaviour, were more likely to take everyone’s needs into account when dealing with hypothetical
conflicts, and showed increased problem solving and conflict resolution skills (Battistich,
Solomon, Watson, Solomon & Schaps, 1989; Solomon, Watson, Dellucchi, Schaps & Battistich,
1998).
Seattle Social Development Project
Although aimed at younger children at the beginning of the intervention, the SSDP runs until age
12. This programme also has been designed based on sound developmental and evidencebased principals, and has been rigorously evaluated. Based in low-income areas with high rates
of violence, the SSDP has components aimed at training teachers in classroom management,
teaching parents about ways to recognize positive behaviour and look for opportunities for
positive involvement of children in school and family, and teaching students social interaction
skills. The developers assert that the training will lead to increased bonding to school and family
and decrease in negative behaviours.
Abbott, O’Donnell, Hawkins, Hill, Kosterman and Catalano (1998) showed that students aged 1012 involved in the project demonstrated stronger bonding to school, which is related to academic
performance (Osterman, 2000; Berkowitz & Bier, 2004). Another study showed that compared to
control students not in the programme, girls aged 11-12 showed more classroom participation
and more commitment to school (O’Donnell, Hawkins, Catalano, Abbott & Day, 1995). Boys in
this study reported improved social skills, school work, commitment to school, and had better
achievement test scores and exam marks. Better academic performance of students in the SSDP
project compared to controls was found to exist even at age 18 (Hawkins, Catalano, Kosterman,
Abbott & Hill, 1999).
Life Skills for Health Promotion
An Ireland-based programme, Life Skills for Health Promotion, is aimed at promoting seven key
skills: communication, relationship building, assertiveness, maintaining self-esteem, skills for
maintaining physical well-being, stress management and time management. The programme is
aimed at post-primary students.
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Programme participants demonstrated more responsible behaviour in relation to alcohol, although
there was no impact on smoking rates or use of illegal substances. Other improvements include
improved adjustment to school. There was also a more marked effect for girls compared with
boys in these areas (Nic Gabhainn & Kelleher, 2000; Nic Gabhainn & Kelleher, 1995), with girls in
later years benefiting from exposure to the programme more than boys.
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4 MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION
4.1 Mental Health Promotion: Literature Reviews
There is a high rate of psychological distress and other emotional, behavioural and
developmental problems in young people (International Union for Health Promotion and
Education, 2000). Depression in particular is on the increase for young people in Northern Ireland
(Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety, 1999; Investing for Health, 2003). Poor
mental health in children such as depression, anxiety and behavioural problems is a risk factor for
poor school outcomes, poor physical health, and poor social skills (Mental Health Foundation,
1999). Classroom-based efforts can be successful in decreasing the likelihood of mental illness
and promoting healthy coping skills. School-based mental health promotion efforts are most
successful when taught as a part of coordinated efforts to teach social emotional learning
(Greenberg, et al., 2003).
A review of selected successful school-based mental health promotion programmes was
conducted for the Scottish Executive (Mentality, 2002). Programme topics reviewed included
Health Promoting Schools, anti-bullying, body image, suicide prevention, prevention of
depression, coping with transitions, participation in school, and substance abuse prevention
programmes. A number of benefits for school-age population were mentioned, such as reducing
body dissatisfaction and decreasing levels of depression compared to control students. Details of
specific programmes from this review (Health Promoting Schools review; Everybody’s Different
Program) can be found in Section 7.1.
Wells, Barlow and Stewart-Brown (2003) reviewed universal approaches to mental health
promotion in schools. Programmes in the review which included students between the ages of
11-16 resulted in decreases in student violence in school (O’Donnell, Stueve & San Doval, 1998),
absenteeism and drop out rates, and improvements in self-concept, school marks (Felner, Brand,
Adan, Mulhall, Flowers & Sartain, 1993; Felner, Ginter & Primavera, 1982), social self-concept,
academic self-concept (Eitan, Amir, Rich, 1992), problem-solving and social problem-solving
skills (Snow, Gilchrist, Schilling, Schinke & Kelso, 1986).
Greenberg, Domitrovich, and Bumbarger (2001) investigated prevention programmes designed to
reduce symptoms or risk of mental disorders in school-age children. The review clearly describes
multiple programmes organized by type that have empirical evidence to support their use. Three
programmes relevant to the KS3 age group are described in this paper in Section 3.2 (PATHS;
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CDP; SSDP) and one is described later in this Section (Improving Social Awareness – Social
Problem Solving: ISA-SPS).
Coping
Projects promoting mental health may measure both direct health benefits and improvements in
skills which are linked to mental or social health. For example, lack of problem-solving skills or
conflict resolution skills is linked to problems in relationships and to poor mental health (Wells, et
al., 2003), as these skills are vital elements of psychological health and adjustment (Hinde, 1979).
A more positive coping strategy has been liked to improvements in motivation for learning,
classroom behaviour and acquiring meta-cognitive skills (Boekaerts, 1996; Dweck & Sorich,
1999). Cunningham, Brandon and Frydenberg (2002) found that teaching coping skills to early
adolescents led to improved coping efficacy and fewer depressive attributions.
Programmes aimed at helping students deal with school changes include elements teaching
coping skills, problem solving skills (Coping with Junior High curriculum) and social competence
and social problem solving skills (Improving Social Awareness – Social Problem Solving: ISASPS). These programmes led to improvements in self-reported ability to cope with school
transition, teacher reports of behaviour, problem-solving and social problem-solving (BrueneButler, Hampson, Elias, Clabby & Schuyler, 1997; Elias, Gara, Schuyler, Branden-Muller &
Sayette, 1991; Snow, Gilchrist, Schilling, Schinke & Kelso, 1986). Details of a specific transition
programme, STEP can be found in Section 4.2
Conflict Resolution
Teaching conflict resolution as a part of existing curriculum has been shown to have benefits to
students’ ability to resolve conflicts and other school-related outcomes (Johnson & Johnson,
1995; Stevahn, 2004). Weissberg, Caplan & Benetto (1988) evaluated a project designed to
enhance social-problem solving, involving students learning and applying an ordered approach to
dealing with difficult situations. Students in the project compared to those not trained produced
more cooperative solutions to hypothetical problems, selected more assertive and cooperative
strategies for solving conflict between people andhad higher teacher-ratings of adjustment.
Powell, Muir-McClain & Halasyamani (1995) reviewed 9 conflict resolution and peer mediation
programmes and reported improved student attitudes towards violence, decreases in referrals to
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the principal for behaviour problems, decreases in both in- and out-of-school suspensions for the
target group and for the whole school and reduced absenteeism. Details of one successful
conflict resolution programme in the UK, Leap Confronting Conflict, can be found in Section 4.2.
In their review, Johnson & Johnson (1996) found that teaching conflict resolution and peer
mediation appear to have positive affects on school climate, increase student psychological
health and self-esteem, decrease behaviour problems and even improve academic performance.
Students that learn these skills seemed able to retain the skills for months after the programme
ends, apply the skills to conflict situations and to spontaneously apply the skills to situations
outside of the class and school. The authors note that the key to success of teaching conflict
resolution is to practice the skill and not just learn about it. It is also important to promote a
cooperative view of conflict resolution as opposed to individualistic or competitive.
Ingredients for Success
There are a number of factors identified by literature reviews which make school-based universal
mental health programmes successful. A recurring theme across programmes is that teaching
ideas alone is not enough to cause changes (e.g., Browne, Gafni, Roberts, Byrne & Majumdar,
2004; Moon, Mullee, Rogers, Thompson, Speller, & Roderick, 1999; Greenberg, et al., 2003).
This is evident in the evaluation by Clarke, Hawkins, Murphy and Sheeber (1993), which showed
that a project teaching about depression and the causes and symptoms did not result in changes
in depressive symptoms or knowledge about seeking treatment.
Longer term interventions tend to work better than shorter ones, programmes that start earlier in
education are more likely to be successful (Browne, et al., 2004; Greenberg, Domitrovich &
Bumbarger, 2001). The most successful mental health promotion projects emphasized healthy
behaviours, as opposed to trying to preventing negative behaviours (Wells, et al., 2003;
Greenberg, Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001). Programmes which try to address multiple
domains, including school environments and institutions, in addition to individuals, tend to show
more positive outcomes (Browne, et al., 2004; Greenberg, Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001).
Programmes for school-age children should focus on the school ecology and climate (Greenberg,
et al., 2001). Teachers should have proper training to enable them to fully deliver programmes
(Han & Weiss, 2005).
4.2 Mental Health Promotion: Selected Specific Programmes
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STEP (transitions, school bonding)
STEP helps students who are transitioning from elementary school (primary school) to middle
school (KS3), and from middle school (KS3) to high school (KS4). The programme aims to
change the school environment and help with school transitions by improving bonding to
prosocial adults and peers. Teachers receive training to improve their academic and social
emotional counselling skills, and students’ opportunities are increased to be rewarded for
academic success.
Positive outcomes of the STEP programme included better adjustment to changes in school,
improved academic progress (Felner, et al., 1993), reductions in stress, anxiety and depression,
fewer absences and drop-outs and higher school marks compared to peers not in the programme
(Felner & Adan, 1988; ; Felner, et al., 1982; Felner, et al., 1993).
Leap Confronting Conflict
Through active group work and peer medication, the Leap project aims to help students and staff
become more aware of conflict issues, work with diversity, work in teams and learn negotiation
skills. The programme was evaluated in one school in England and was found to have had the
following positive impacts (Inman & Turner, 2001):
Positive change in school culture and ethos
Significant reduction of high-level conflict, with bullying less likely to result in physical violence
Staff less threatened by conflicts and more confident in dealing with them
Greater self-confidence among young people to take responsibility for their behaviour and
achievement
Decrease in number of permanent exclusions since start of the project
General improvement in GCSE exam results each year since the start of project
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5. SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND VIOLENCE
PREVENTION
5.1 Substance Abuse and Violence Prevention: Literature Reviews
Substance Abuse Prevention
Primary prevention programs and character or social emotional education programs share many
of the same goals (Berkowitz & Bier, 2004). Drug and substance abuse prevention and mental
health promotion efforts and are most successful when taught as a part of coordinated efforts to
teach social emotional learning (Greenberg, et al., 2003; Morgan, 2001). Watkins (1995b) found
that in schools where alcohol education is taught as PSE, the drinking rates are lower than when
it is taught in science class. A widely used drug abuse prevention programme in Ireland, ‘On My
Own Two Feet’, is detailed in Section 5.2.
In a meta-analysis of school-based prevention programmes aimed at reducing problem
behaviours, Wilson, Gottfredson and Najaka (2001) found that programmes taught in schools
could be effective in reducing alcohol and drug use. In addition, they found that those
programmes which focused on social emotional learning positively impacted school behaviours,
including dropout and attendance rates. Details of one programme mentioned in this review, Life
Skills Training (LST) & another from the review by Catalano, et al. (2004), Project ALERT, can be
found in Section 5.2.
The US Department of Health and Human Services (2002) summarized model prevention
programmes which aim to improve overall social and behavioural functioning, among other
objectives, that also lead to improved academic achievement. Four programmes were relevant to
students in KS3 (Across Ages: school & community-based; Leadership & Resiliency Program:
school & community-based; PATHS: school-based; Project ACHIEVE: school-based).
Specific positive outcomes included increased school marks, improved attendance (Across Ages;
Leadership & Resiliency Program), decreased suspensions, improved attitudes towards school,
decreased alcohol and tobacco use (Across Ages), graduation rates, increased sense of school
bonding, increased knowledge of and negative attitudes towards substance abuse and violence
(Leadership & Resiliency Program), better reading, math and language test scores, significant
19
improvement in students’ abilities to tolerate frustration and willingness to use effective conflict
resolution strategies (Project ACHIEVE), improved problem-solving skills, cognitive flexibility,
scores on cognitive skills test (PATHS), fewer reported behaviour problems (Leadership &
Resiliency Program; Project ACHIEVE). Details of one of the school-based programmes, PATHS,
can be found in Section 3.2.
Reviews of cigarette smoking prevention programmes found that smoking was reduced in socialskills development programmes much more than traditional knowledge-only programmes or
developmental/social norms orientation programmes (Bruvold, 1993; Lantz, Jacobson, Warner,
Wasserman, Pollack, Berson & Ahlstrom, 2000). Other programmes not specifically aimed at
reducing smoking, but with more broad social skills development goals also resulted in reduced
tobacco use (Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Tortu & Botvin, 1990; Moon, et al., 1999)
Violence Prevention
Universal programmes aimed at violence prevention in schools can be useful in helping prevent
situational violence and relationship violence. They particularly can be helpful for violence which
can arise out of normal difficult developmental situations, such as school transitions or the onset
of adolescence (Farrell, Meyer, Kung & Sullivan, 2001). These programmes are aimed typically at
increasing protective factors in students’ lives by teaching helpful skills, such as social skills.
However, there are not many well-implemented and thoroughly evaluated programmes in the
literature. There is evidence that social and emotional or youth development programmes can
help to reduce violent behaviours (e.g., Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004). A programme
specifically aimed at violence prevention, RIPP, can be found in Section 5.2.
A review of school-based problem behaviour prevention programmes showed that programmes
can indeed be successful in reducing alcohol and drug use, drop out, non-attendance and other
difficult or problem behaviours (Wilson, Gottfredson & Najaka, 2001). The method of delivery was
crucial in predicting whether a positive outcome was found. Programmes were more likely to be
successful when they were based on solid learning theories and used cognitive behavioural and
behavioural modelling methods. Some of the more effective methods were self-control or social
competency promotion instruction using cognitive behavioural instructional methods. Neither
traditional instructional or individual counselling methods using non-cognitive behavioural
methods had any effects on behaviour (Wilson, Gottfredson & Najaka, 2001).
20
Ingredients for Success
In both substance abuse and violence and other problem behaviour prevention programmes,
didactic, knowledge-based programmes appear to have little or no effect on behaviour (Klepp,
Oygard, Tell Grethe & Vellar Odd, 1994; Moon, et al., 1999; Tobler, Roona, Ochshorn, Marchall,
Streke & Stackpole, 2000; Morgan, 2001; Thomas, et al., 1999; Wilson, Gottfredson & Najaka,
2001). Although Tobler & Stratton, (1997) note that the key facts must also be included.
According to a large meta-analysis of drug prevention programmes, those which are interactive
are the most likely to cause decrease in drug and substance abuse (Tobler, et al., 2000).
Interactive methods of teaching about drugs provide contact and communication opportunities to
talk about ideas and to hone drug refusal skills. These methods also involve feedback and an
opportunity to practice skills in a safe environment. Three types of interactive drug prevention
programmes identified by Tobler, et al. (2000) were social influences, comprehensive life skills
and system-wide change.
Research has shown that teaching students the consequences of taking drugs, such as the
DARE programme in the United States, is much less effective than teaching students the
emotional and social skills to make wise decisions and think for themselves (Morgan, 2001).
Students appear to respond negatively or not at all to programmes that threaten dangerous longterm consequences to their lives (Morgan, 2001). Several studies have found that simply
expelling students for using drugs in schools does nothing to reduce drug use (Munro & Midford,
2001; Pentz, Dwyer, MacKinnon, Flay, Hansen, Wang, & Johnson, 1989b).
Reppucci, Woolard and Fried (1999) noted that programmes designed to deal with large social
problems must address multiple levels, such as the individuals, families, schools and the
community. Many studies report that for prevention programmes to maximize effectiveness, they
need to involve more than just the classroom (Reppucci, Woolard & Fried, 1999; Moon, et al.,
1999). Programmes will be more likely to be successful when they are fully implemented, than
those that are partially delivered (Kam, Greenberg & Walls, 2003).
Drug prevention programmes which are successful include teaching elements of personal
development, including life skills such as communication, assertiveness, social/relationships,
coping and goal-setting. These are central to the self-awareness, personal health and
relationships streams of the Personal Development curriculum in Northern Ireland.
5.2 Substance Abuse and Violence Prevention: Selected Specific Programmes
21
On My Own Two Feet
An Irish social influence-type programme, On My Own Two Feet teaches social skills to resist
social pressure in addition to standard drug information. The programme is age-appropriate,
implemented nationally and uses various types of interactive methods, including role play.
The programme has received very positive feedback from both teachers and students (Morgan,
2001). It has been found to lead to more negative attitudes and expectations towards drugs than
students in control groups (Morgan, Morrow, Sheehan & Lillis, 1996). Although this study did not
find a difference in actual substance use compared to the control group, this was a pilot study and
further evaluations are expected.
Life Skills Training (LST)
A three-year study by Botvin, et al. (1990) found positive effects of a Life Skills Training (LST)
programme aimed at prevention. The programme teaches drug resistance skills to enable
students to deal with peers and media pressure to use legal and illegal substances. Also included
are personal self-management skills which help students learn how to examine their self-image
and its effects on behaviour, set goals and keep track of personal progress, identify everyday
decisions and how they may be influenced by others, analyze problem situations and consider
the consequences of each alternative solution before making decisions, reduce stress and
anxiety and look at personal challenges in a positive light. Finally, the programme teaches
general social skills. These teach students the skills to overcome shyness, communicate
effectively and avoid misunderstandings, initiate and carry out conversations, handle social
requests, utilize both verbal and nonverbal assertiveness skills to make or refuse requests and
recognize that they have choices other than aggression or passivity when faced with difficult
situations.
For those programs that exhibited a minimum standard of quality of implementation, there was a
significant inverse relationship between how well the programmes were implemented and amount
of cigarette smoking, drinking frequency, frequency of getting drunk and cannabis use.
Project ALERT
A recent evaluation demonstrated multiple positive benefits of participation in Project ALERT with
a cohort of middle school (KS3) students (Ellickson, McCaffrey, Ghosh-Dastidar & Longshore,
22
2003). This positive youth development programme was reviewed in Catalano, et al., (2004), and
is based on the combination of 3 concepts: the cognitive factors that influence behaviour, the
social norms and the influence of significant others on young people’s behaviours and importance
of self-efficacy.
Compared to control students not in the programme, the students in the programme showed
curbed cigarette and cannabis smoking behaviours and reductions in alcohol misuse.
RIPP
RIPP is a universal violence prevention programme for 11-12 year old students. The programme
is delivered by a prevention specialist, although it seems likely that aspects of the curriculum
could be taught by teachers. Elements include those found in social-emotional programmes, such
as knowledge, attitudes and skills that promote non-violence, positive communication and
achievement. Students are instructed in the use of a social-cognitive problem-solving model and
specific skills for preventing violence (e.g., avoiding potentially violent situations, talking things
through; see Meyer & Farrell, 1998; Meyer, Farrell, Northup, Kung & Plybon, 2000). Three basic
techniques are used including repetition of behaviours and mental rehearsal of problem-solving
methods, experiential learning techniques and traditional instructional methods. Early sessions
focus on team building and acquiring knowledge, while later sessions focus on critical thinking
and skill building.
Results showed that RIPP participants:
had fewer disciplinary violations for violent offences
fewer in-school suspensions at post-test compared with the control group
also fewer suspensions than the control group at a 12-month follow-up for boys, but not for girls
those who started with higher levels of problem behaviour benefited to a greater degree than
those that started with lower levels (Farrell, Meyer & White, 2001)
23
6. SEXUAL HEALTH
6.1 Sexual Health: Literature Reviews
The UK currently has the highest rates of teenage pregnancy in Europe, and the sexual health of
young people in terms of sexually transmitted infections is rapidly declining (Select Committee on
Health, 2003). An analysis of the National Child Development Study (NCDS) in the UK found that
parents under the age of 22 were less likely to have performed well in school and to have
completed their education with qualifications (Kiernan, 1995). However, research has shown that
properly implemented, sexual education programmes can be effective in reducing risky
behaviours and increasing positive behaviours (e.g., Mellanby, Phelps, Crichton & Tripp, 1995).
Kirby (2002) reviewed sex education programs and found a number of benefits of some of the
more comprehensive programs. Effects of sexual and STD/HIV education programs on
contraceptive use consistently find increase in contraceptive use. STD/HIV education that
promotes abstinence, but also covers condoms or contraception do not increase sexual activity,
can lead to some delay the initiation of sex, reduce its frequency and reduce the number of
partners. Abstinence-only programmes have not shown reliable significant effects on delaying the
onset of sexual intercourse, although methodological problems make it difficult to draw
conclusions (Fullerton, 2004; Kirby, 2002). Two sexual education programmes, SHARE and
APAUSE, are reviewed in Section 6.2.
Cowie, Boardman, Dawkins, & Jennifer (2004) report that good communication skills, self-esteem
and an ability to understand and control feelings are all important in healthy sexual behaviours.
Consequently, programmes which teach these elements are more likely to be successful. Sexual
education literature (Cowie, et al., 2004; DfES, 2001; Fullerton, 2004; Kirby, 2002) has outlined
the following characteristics of programmes which are associated with positive results:
Deliver and consistently reinforce clear prevention messages about abstinence, condom use and
other forms of contraception
Include behavioural goals, teaching methods and materials that are appropriate to the age,
sexual experience and culture of the students
Use theoretical models and methods shown to be effective in reducing other risky behaviours
Provide basic, accurate information about the risks of sexual activity and about ways to avoid
intercourse or methods of protection against HIV/STI and pregnancy
Include activities that address social pressures related to sexual behaviours
24
Provide modelling and practice of communication. Include examples of, and rehearse (e.g., role
play), communication, negotiation and refusal skills
Use teaching methods that involve students and have them personalize the information
Last a sufficient amount of time to cover a range of activities
If applicable, select teachers or peer leaders who support the programme
Involve pupils own assessment of their needs
6.2 Sexual Health: Selected Specific Programmes
SHARE
The effectiveness of a Scottish sex education programme, SHARE, aimed at 13-15 year olds was
reviewed by Abraham, Henderson & Der (2004). The programme aimed to decrease the
incidence of unsafe sex by encouraging students to delay sexual intercourse until they were sure
they were ready and to always use a condom. The programme also aimed to improve the quality
of sexual and romantic relationships. The 10-lesson programme used videos, discussions and
covered topics such as conception, contraception and condom use.
Students in the programme had significantly higher scores on the belief that there are alternatives
to sexual intercourse in romantic/sexual relationships, intentions to resist unwanted sexual
activities and intentions to discuss condoms with sexual partners. SHARE recipients were also
less likely to agree that condom use would reduce sexual enjoyment. However, effect sizes were
not significantly different from those of conventional sexual education programmes. A preliminary
study on the effects of SHARE also showed that pupils in the intervention arm were more
knowledgeable than those in the control arm (Wight, Henderson, Raab, Abraham, Buston, Scott
& Hart, 2000; Wight, Raab, Henderson, Abraham, Buston, Hart & Scott, 2002).
APAUSE
APAUSE is a programme run in the UK aimed at improving sexual health in teenagers (Kay,
Tripp, Mellanby, Hinde & Hull, 2002; Mellanby, Phelps, Crichton & Tripp, 1995). The programme
emphasizes knowledge as well as elements of self-development. Subjects covered included
puberty, reproduction, contraception and negotiation in relationships, including training in
assertiveness skills. The emphasis on avoidance of risks was taught by involving students in role
play and group work. While it used a programme team including a doctor teaching some lessons,
25
training and support was also provided for the schools' own teachers (and for a few sessions,
peer leaders) to deliver parts of the intervention.
Compared to control students not participating in the programme, students participating in
APAUSE were:
more likely to have correct knowledge of sex, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases
less likely to report that intercourse should be part of relationships for those under age 16
more tolerant of the behaviour of others
less likely to be sexually active
those that were sexually active were less likely to have unprotected sex
more likely to approve of their "sex education"
26
7. OTHER PROGRAMMES PROMOTING
HEALTH
7.1 Other Programmes Promoting Health: Literature Reviews
Health Promoting Schools
In a review of health promoting schools, Lister-Sharp, Chapman, Stewart-Brown & Sowden
(1999) found that they can usefully change health-related behaviour and improve health. Some
positive outcomes included injury prevention, healthy eating and cardiovascular health, mental
health, positive attitudes and behaviours. Fewer evaluations showed positive effects of preventing
substance abuse or high-risk sexual behaviour. However, programmes on these two topics have
been reviewed and researched intensively, and are covered in Sections 4 & 5 of this review.
An evaluation of a healthy schools initiative in Ireland was conducted by Morgan (1997). The
programme covered personal hygiene, nutrition, relationships, legal and illegal drugs, growth and
development, environmental health and safety and first aid. Skills targeted included
communication skills, maintaining physical well-being, building self-esteem, assertiveness,
decision making skills, skills involved in relationships and study skills. Results showed that
teachers rated the programme and the training highly, and compared to students not in the
programme, participants in the programme reported more optimistic views of their future, were
less likely to predict they would be smokers as adults and had less favourable attitudes and
beliefs towards alcohol and smoking.
Accidents/Safety
Reviews of school-based accident prevention programmes showed that some practices can be
effective in preventing or promoting certain behaviours. In a review of projects promoting safety
policies and education aimed at preventing accidents, Doswell, Towner, Simpson & Jarvis (1996)
found pedestrian education aimed at the child & parent to be successful in reducing accidents.
However, these were not necessarily school-based.
In a synthesis of reviews of school-based accident prevention programmes, Lister-Sharp,
Chapman, Stewart-Brown & Sowden (1999) found some burn prevention programmes increased
27
knowledge about burns, educational interventions had positive effects on increasing bicycle
helmet use and a road safety programme improved driver and pedestrian behaviour. One
comprehensive school-based health promotion programme that has accident prevention as one
of its many aims, has been shown to have impacts on reducing accidents. This programme,
Growing Healthy, is reviewed below in Section 7.2.
A health and safety information programme, Life Skills-Learning for Living Programme (Oxford
Evaluation Team, 2003), led to improvements in knowledge and confidence in dealing with
emergencies. The programme teaches children about safety through interacting with the
environment and spotting possible hazards. The programme is not school-based, but rather it is a
self-contained site with various sets representing rooms of the house and other locations which
might present safety hazards. Although this was not school-based, a lesson from this study is that
the interactive, hands-on method of teaching children about health and safety appeared to be
effective, as opposed to lecture-style instruction.
Nutrition
Proper eating habits are included in the aims of the Healthy Schools initiatives in the UK and are
included in the Northern Ireland Personal Development curriculum. Few literature reviews of
programmes aimed at improving healthy eating in schools could be located, but one such
programme which showed positive effects on eating habits and attitudes was Growing Healthy
(reviewed in Section 7.2).
Eating disorders can be usefully addressed in a PSE scheme. Stewart (1998) found benefits of
an eating disorder prevention programme in terms of increased knowledge about eating problems
and less deterioration in eating behaviours compared to a control group. The programme aimed
among other objectives to promote healthy relationships, improve personal identity, and
encourage resilience to peer pressures. These are all related to the personal development
scheme. Characteristics of the programme, as with programmes in other areas of personal
development, are again interactive, with elements of role-play. They are not simply informational
in nature.
A programme hoping to improve the body image of adolescents, Everybody’s Different Program
(O’Dea & Abraham, 1999) focused on self-esteem and body image. Body dissatisfaction in young
people was successfully reduced and weight control behaviours in girls were altered.
28
7.2 Other Programmes Promoting Health: Selected Specific Programmes
Healthy Schools Programme: Example
A study evaluating a health promoting school showed positive effects on behaviours and attitudes
(Moon, et al., 1999). The curriculum mainly focused on teaching about healthy lifestyles, including
information about diet, smoking exercise, drugs and sex education.
The results of this UK study showed benefits in terms of pupils’ health-related knowledge and
attitudes, reducing smoking and reducing drug use. The benefits were most pronounced in older
girls.
Growing Healthy
Growing Healthy is a comprehensive multi-year health education program as opposed to a
single-topic curriculum (reviewed in Catalano, et al., 2004). The comprehensive program
incorporates ten content areas, mental and emotional health, family life and health, growth and
development, nutrition, personal health, substance use and abuse, disease control and
prevention, safety and first aid, consumer health community and environmental health
management. The programme starts at early primary school, but does continue up to 6th Grade
(age 12).
The skills taught include goal setting, decision making, creative thinking, empathy, selfawareness, problem solving, effective communication, coping with stress, critical thinking, coping
with emotions, interpersonal relationship skills.
Some positive outcomes of the programme include the following:
Better personal health management knowledge and attitudes
Better health practices
Decreases in cigarette smoking
Improved attitudes and knowledge about smoking
29
8. BENEFITS OF TEACHING PD:
SUMMARY
This section summarizes the benefits found for post-secondary students in this review of teaching
the various aspects of the PD curriculum. Examples are given for each benefit, but not all
examples are included.
8.1 School Outcomes
Attitudes
Improved attitudes towards school/teachers
Prevention programmes, SEL programmes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2002; Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004)
Increased attachment and commitment to school
SEL programmes, programmes designed to promote caring, supportive, cooperative learning
environment (Hawkins, Smith, Catalano, 2004; Battistick, Solomon, Watson & Schaps, 1997;
Osterman, 2000)
Behaviour
General improvements in behaviour
Prevention programmes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2002); SEL
programmes (Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004)
Improved attendance
Prevention of problem behaviours (Wilson, et al., 2001) STEP programme (Felner, Ginter &
Primavera, 1982); Conflict resolution programmes (Powell, Muir-McClain & Halasyamani, 1995)
Increased participation
Programmes designed to promote caring, supportive, cooperative learning environment
(Murdock, 1999); SSDP (O’Donnell, et al., 1998)
Reduced suspensions
30
Conflict resolution programmes (Powell, Muir-McClain & Halasyamani, 1995)
Less dropout
Prevention of problem behaviours (Wilson, et al., 2001); STEP programme (Felner, Ginter &
Primavera, 1982)
More ethical conduct and increased understanding of moral concepts
Direct moral education programmes (Leming, Henrick-Smith & Antis, 1997)
Less violent behaviour
Conflict resolution programmes (O’Donnell, Stueve & San Doval, 1998); ADD OTHERS
Decreases in negative or aggressive behaviour
Mental health promotion (Wells, Barlow & Stewart-Brown, 2003); STEP (Felner, Ginter &
Primavera, 1982); PATHS (Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004); prevention of problem behaviours
(Wilson, et al., 2001)
Performance
Improved academic achievement
SEL programmes (Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004); Prevention programmes using SEL
methods (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2002)
More homework completed
Programmes designed to promote caring, supportive, cooperative learning environment
(Murdock, 1999)
Improved exam scores, school marks
Prevention programmes using SEL methods (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2002) SEL programmes (Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004); STEP programme (Felner,
Ginter & Primavera, 1982); Leap Confronting Conflict (Inman & Turner, 2001)
Increased achievement test scores
SSDP (Abbott, et al., 1998)
Improved non-verbal reasoning and cognitive test scores
31
PATHS (Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004)
8.2 Social Emotional Outcomes
Improved self-esteem & self-concept
STEP (Felner, Ginter & Primavera, 1982); Mental health promotion programmes (Wells, Barlow &
Stewart-Brown, 2003)
Increased confidence in dealing with conflict
Leap Confronting Conflict (Inman & Turner, 2001)
More sociability, increased social skills
Indirect moral development programmes (Trianes Torres, et al., 1995)
Improved negotiation skills
Universal mental health promotion programmes (Wells, Barlow & Stewart-Brown, 2003)
Improved problem-solving skills
Universal mental health promotion programmes (Wells, Barlow & Stewart-Brown, 2003); WHICH?
(Snow, et al., 1986)
Improved conflict resolution skills
Conflict resolution and peer mediation programmes (Johnson & Johnson, 1995; Stevahn, 2004)
Increased prosocial problem solving or improvements in moral reasoning
Child Development Project (Solomon, Watson, Delucchi, Schaps & Battistich, 1998); (Snow, et
al., 1986); PATHS (Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004); Improving Social Awareness – Social
Problem Solving: ISA-SPS (Bruene-Butler, Hampson, Elias, Clabby & Schuyler, 1997); indirect
moral development programmes (Higgins, 1980; Higgins, Power & Kohlberg, 1984)
8.3 Health Related Outcomes
Mental health
Reducing depression or depressive attributes
32
(Cunningham, et al., 2002); STEP (Felner, Ginter & Primavera, 1982); PATHS (Greenberg,
Kusche & Riggs, 2004)
Reduced anxiety
STEP (Felner, Ginter & Primavera, 1982); PATHS (Greenberg, Kusche & Riggs, 2004)
Improved coping skills
Teaching coping skills (Cunningham, et al., 2002) Coping with Junior High curriculum (Snow,
Gilchrist, Schilling, Schinke & Kelso, 1986); Improving Social Awareness – Social Problem
Solving: ISA-SPS (Bruene-Butler, Hampson, Elias, Clabby & Schuyler, 1997)
Smoking
Less favourable attitudes towards smoking
Healthy schools programme (Morgan, 1997)
Reducing smoking behaviour
Life Skills programme (Botvin, 1990); health promoting schools (Moon, et al., 1999); Social-skills
based smoking-prevention programmes (Bruvold, 1993); Growing Healthy (Catalano, Berglund,
Ryan, Lonczak & Hawkins, 2004)
Drugs
Decrease in drug use
Healthy schools promoting programmes (Moon, et al., 1999); substance abuse prevention
programmes (Botvin, et al., 1990; Tobler, et al., 2000); prevention of problem behaviours (Wilson,
et al., 2001)
Drinking
Less favourable attitudes towards drinking
Healthy schools programme (Morgan, 1997)
Decrease in frequency of drinking
Substance abuse prevention programmes (Tobler, et al., 2000); Life Skills programme (Botvin, et
al., 1990); Prevention of problem or risky behaviours (Thomas, et al., 1999; Wilson, et al., 2001);
Healthy schools programmes (Nic Gabhainn & Kelleher, 2000)
33
Sexual health
Knowledge about sex and relationships
Sexual health promoting programmes (Fullerton, 2004); SHARE (Wight et al., 2002); APAUSE
(Mellanby, Phelps, Crichton & Tripp, 1995)
Increased social and personal skills, Some impact on quality of relationships
SHARE (Wight, et al., 2002)
Do not increase sexual activity
Sexual health programmes (Kirby, 2002)
Increase in contraceptive use
Effect of sex and STD/HIV education programs on contraceptive use (Kirby, 2002)
Delay in onset of sexual activity
Teaching sex education combined with contraceptive services (Kirby, 2002)
Reduce frequency of sex
Sex education programmes (Kirby, 2002); APAUSE (Mellanby, Phelps, Crichton & Tripp, 1995)
Reduce the number of partners, less likely to believe that intercourse should be part of
relationships for under 16s and more tolerant of the behaviour of others
APAUSE (Mellanby, Phelps, Crichton & Tripp, 1995)
Eating habits
Less deterioration in eating habits
Eating disorder prevention programmes (Stewart, 1995)
More knowledge about eating disorders
Eating disorder prevention programmes (Stewart, 1995); Growing Healthy (Catalano, Berglund,
Ryan, Lonczak & Hawkins, 2004)
Better eating habits
Growing Healthy (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak & Hawkins, 2004)
34
Reduced body dissatisfaction
Everybody’s Different Program (O’Dea & Abraham, 1999)
Positive changes in weight control behaviours
Everybody’s Different Program (O’Dea & Abraham, 1999)
Healthier attitudes, knowledge and practices
Growing Healthy (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak & Hawkins, 2004)
Decreased accidents, increased knowledge about safety
Lifeskills-Learning for Living (Oxford Evaluation Team, 2003)
Pedestrian safety programmes (Doswell, et al., 1996)
Road safety, burns, bicycle helmet use programmes (Lister-Sharp, et al., 1999)
35
9. WHAT MAKES PROGRAMMES WORK?
This section summarizes common themes found in the literature that characterize successful
programmes, and which correspond to those found in the revised PD curriculum in Northern
Ireland. There are aspects of teaching some topics (e.g., sexual education) which are not covered
here, as they were specific only to that area. Topic-specific themes can be found in their
respective sections of this review.
Teaching knowledge alone is not enough
Knowledge only programmes are much less effective than those which use other methods, such
as role-play (Klepp, et al., 1994; Tobler, et al., 2000)
This is true for general SEL or character education programmes (Zins, Weissberg, Wang &
Walberg, 2004), mental health promoting programmes (e.g., Clarke, Hawkins, Murphy &
Sheeber, 1993; Browne, et al., 2004), sexual health and substance and violence prevention
programmes (Thomas, et al., 1999; Browne et al., 2000; Moon, et al., 1999; Tobler, et al., 2000;
Morgan, 2001) and eating issues (Stewart, 1998).
However, the important information and/or facts should also be present (Tobler & Stratton, 1997)
Involving interactive learning
Interactive learning helps engage students and allow them to practice newly acquired skills
(Tobler, et al., 2000; Elias, 1990; Weare & Gray, 2003; Morgan, 2001)
Examples are group work and role-play (e.g., in sex education, Fullerton, 2004)
Practicing skills that are taught is crucial in some areas, such as conflict resolution programmes
(Johnson & Johnson, 1996; Weare & Gray, 2003; Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004)
A change in structure of classroom may be required, such as with Circle Time (Mosley, 1996)
Developing protective skills is often better than trying to reduce risky behaviours
36
Developing coping, social skills which help students to make healthy choices against peer
pressure will be better than telling students to stop doing drugs (Morgan, 2001)
Most successful mental health promotion projects emphasized healthy behaviours, as opposed to
preventing illness (Wells, et al., 2003)
This is true for sexual health programmes too: interventions that improve self-esteem, ability to
communicate and develop social and emotional skills all help students make healthy sexual
decisions (Cowie, et al., 2004)
37
Involving multiple domains
More successful substance abuse prevention, violence prevention, sexual health promoting, SEL,
and mental health promoting programmes involve home and/or community as well as school
(Morgan, 2001; Greenberg, et al., 2001; Berkowitz & Bier, 2004; Zins, et. al, 2004; Dowswell, et
al., 1996; Repucci, Woolard & Fried, 1999)
Although some programmes can be successful in one domain (e.g., Project ALERT).
Longer term programmes are more successful than short intensive ones
Multi-year programs are more likely to foster enduring benefits (Greenberg, et al., 2001; Wells, et
al., 2003; Weare & Gray; Lantieri & Patti, 1996)
This is true for substance abuse prevention, mental health promotion, and others (Greenberg,
Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001; Wells, et al., 2003)
Classroom and school environment is key (Weare & Gray, 2003)
A positive teacher-student relationship helps improve social emotional skills, academic
performance, and classroom behaviour (Grossman & Tierney, 1998)
Classrooms where students feel safe to talk about sensitive issues will lead to more sharing and
to more attachment to school (Greenberg, et al., 2003)
Attachment to school/family is important in predicting outcomes such as academic success (Zins,
et al., 2004), and preventing risky behaviours (Hawkins, Catalano & Miller, 1992)
Use a holistic approach (Weare & Gray, 2003), provide teacher support and
training, have good leadership
Focus should be not just on teachers, rather whole school should be integrated and have
elements working together (Elias, et al., 1997; Cowie, et al., 2004)
38
Most successful mental health promotion programmes used a whole-school approach (Wells, et
al., 2003)
Leadership of principal is crucial (Berkowitz & Bier, 2004; Greenberg, et al., 1995)
Quality of Implementation
Partially implemented programmes are less likely to have the desired effect (Berkowitz & Bier,
2004; Han & Weiss, 2005; Kam, Greenberg & Walls, 2003; Tobler, et al., 2000)
In order to be properly implemented, teachers should have good support and training (Berkowitz
& Bier, 2004; Han & Weiss, 2005; Weare & Gray, 2003).
Programmes which were well-structured, with manuals, etc., were more successful (Catalano, et
al., 2002; Elias, et al., 1997)
Carefully planned, theory and research-based lessons work better (Elias, et al., 1997; Farrell,
Meyer, Kung, and Sullivan, 2001; Cowie, et al., 2004)
Lessons should target the age and experience of the audience (Cowie, et al., 2004)
39
10. Conclusion
Teaching the Personal Development strand of the Learning for Life and Work curriculum can help
students gain valuable life skills, learn more about themselves, develop positive self-esteem and
self-efficacy, understand and resist peer pressure, be able to deal better with conflict, and
become better informed about risky behaviours. These skills provide students with the tools they
need to make good decisions, engage in healthier behaviours and perform better academically.
In this review, Section 3: SEL/PSE covered programmes teaching the full spectrum of topics
included in the Self-Awareness component of the PD curriculum, as well as selected elements of
the Personal Health and Relationships components. Section 4: Mental Health Promotion covered
particular elements of all three segments. Section 5: Substance Abuse and Violence Prevention
discussed topics clearly related to this topic from the curriculum, including investigating effects of
legal and illegal substances, promoting personal safety (Personal Health component) and
elements of healthy relationships (Relationships component). However, effective programmes in
this section also covered elements of developing the self (Self-Awareness component),
understanding changes on the mind, body and behaviour (Personal Health component), and
conflict resolution (Relationships component).
Programmes mentioned in Section 6: Sexual Health Promotion, covered topics in the
Relationships component. However, as with Section 5, many successful programmes also
targeted elements of the Self-Awareness component, such as exploring a sense of self and
developing self-esteem. They also covered elements of the Personal Health component,
including exploring the development of the whole person, understanding and managing change,
and promoting personal safety. Finally, Section 7: Other Programmes Promoting Health covered
topics across the curriculum, including some not covered elsewhere, such as strategies to avoid
accidents (Personal Health component).
While there are a number of benefits evident for promoting and teaching positive youth
development in schools, the method of delivery is also crucial. A number of key themes emerged
from the literature describing teaching practices, school and teaching environments and other
intervention qualities that characterize the most successful programmes. Schools and teachers
would need to evaluate the current personal development programmes, school atmosphere, and
available resources to determine how to give the revised PD curriculum the best chances of
producing positive results.
40
The revised PD curriculum in Northern Ireland is based in part on the idea that different types of
risks can be reduced by teaching similar skills. This means it is both possible and economical to
target multiple negative outcomes by teaching similar skills, such as social and coping skills
(Greenberg, Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001). The revised curriculum also acknowledges that a
linked set of strategies, based on theory and research, is more likely to be successful than any
one program component in promoting academics and encouraging positive development
(Greenberg, Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2001). The PD curriculum is a comprehensive, researchbased programme with the potential, if implemented properly, to positively impact the health and
development of post-secondary students in Northern Ireland.
41
11. Further Information
Websites
CASEL
Organization focusing on SEL in schools
http://www.casel.org
Drug Education and Prevention Information Service (DEPIS), UK
http://www.info.doh.gov.uk/doh/depisusers.nsf/Main?readForm
Scottish Health Promoting Schools Unit (SHPSU)
www.healthpromotingschools.co.uk
www.healthyliving.gov.uk
SAMHSA Model Programs
Effective substance abuse and mental health programs for every community
http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov
APAUSE
Adolescent sexual health promotion programme in the UK
http://www.programmes.ex.ac.uk/apause/index.htm
Conflict Resolution in Schools Programme
http://www.crispuk.org
Life Skills Training (LST) Programme
http://www.lifeskillstraining.com
Project ACHIEVE
http://www.projectachieve.info
Growing Healthy
http://www.nche.org/growinghealthy.htm
42
Books
Building Academic Success on Social and Emotional Learning
J. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang & H. J. Walberg
2004
New York: Teachers College Press
Handbook of Research on Teaching
Edited by V. Richardson
Teaching and schooling effects on moral/prosocial development (Chapter)
D. Solomon, M. S. Watson & V. Battistich.
2001
Washington DC: American Educational Research Association.
The Health Promoting School: Policy, Research and Practice
S. Denman
2002
London ; New York: Routledge Falmer
Emotional Health and Wellbeing
H. Cowie, C. Boardman, J. Dawkins & D. Jennifer
2004
PLACE: Sage Publications
Other Publications
Drug use prevention: Overview of research
M. Morgan
2001
Dublin: The Stationary Office.
43
Opportunities for Drug and Alcohol Education in the School Curriculum
N. Sinclair, S. Noor, V. Evans.
2001
London: Alcohol Concern/Drugscope
Peer Mediation in the UK: A Guide for Schools
W. Baginsky
2004
London: NSPCC
Life Skills Education for Children and Adolescents in Schools: Introduction and Guidelines to
Facilitate the Development and Implementation of Life Skills Programmes
1993a
Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO)
Teenage pregnancy and parenthood: A review of reviews (Evidence Briefing)
C. Swann, K. Bowe, G. McCormick & M. Kosmin
2003
London: Health Development Agency
44
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