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Mid-Year Review Outline • • • • • • • Cells Organisation of Matter Fluids and Pressure Musculoskeletal system Respiratory system Cardiovascular system and Blood Constraints & Deformations Cells What are cells? • Cells are the basic unit of all living things • 2 main types of cells: o Animal o Plant Cell Components • Cell membrane o The cell membrane holds the cell together and allows nutrients in the cell • Cell wall o Cell walls are only in plant cells o They make the cell strong and rigid • Cytoplasm o Cytoplasm is the watery gel inside a cell that holds the organelles • Mitochondria o Mitochondria is an ORGANelle that releases energy from food • Chloroplasts o Chloroplasts are only in plant cells o They contain chlorophyll, which helps make energy/food from sunlight Cell Components (2) • Nucleus o The nucleus controls the cell (cell’s “brain”) • Chromosomes o Chromosomes are inside the nucleus and are made of genes (DNA) o Genes decide the cells traits and activities (heart cell, eye cell (color)) • Nuclear membrane o The nuclear membrane allows substances to pass in and out of the nucleus • Vacuole o Vacuoles are spaces in the cytoplasm (gel) where food and chemicals are stored Cellular Specialization • Although all animal cells have the same basic structure, different cells perform different functions o We call this cellular specialization • Organization: Cells Tissue Organ System Living organism Cellular Organization • Cells o Smallest unit of life • Tissues o A group of cells with the same function and structure o Types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle, nerve • Organs o Structures composed of 2 or more tissue types • Systems o Multiple organs working together for a common purpose • Organisms o All the organ systems together to create one body Matter • Matter is anything that has volume and mass • REVIEW: particle model Phase Changes • How do you go from one phase to another? • Solids States of Matter o Have a defined shape o Molecules are arranged in a regular pattern o Molecules are held firmly in place and tightly packed together • They can vibrate a tiny bit • Liquids o The molecules flow easily around each other o Take on the shape of their container o Weak attractive forces between molecules keep them from flying apart • Gases o Molecules fly around in all directions at great speeds o Practically no attractive forces between molecules Fluids & Pressure Hydraulics and Pneumatics Fluid • A fluid is any substance that has the capacity to flow and assume the form of the container into which it is poured o Gases o Liquids Types of Fluids • There are 2 types of fluids: o Compressible fluids • A fluid with a volume that can vary (gases) • Example: air o Incompressible fluids • A fluid with a volume that doesn’t really vary (liquids) • Example: water Pressure • Pressure is the result of a force applied over a surface (measured in pascals [Pa]) o Force: an action that modifies the movement of an object or causes a deformation (N) o Surface area: the surface dimension of an object (m2) 𝐹 𝑃= 𝐴 • The stronger the force applied to a certain area, the greater the pressure • The larger the area over which a force is applied, the lower the pressure Pressure in Fluids • Pressure in fluids is dependent on collisions • Factors affecting the number of collisions: o Number of particles o Temperature o Volume • At constant temperature, the volume of a compressible fluid is inversely proportional to pressure o V ↑ then P↓ Think about when your breathe o V ↓ then P↑ Fluid Movement • Remember: fluids move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure o Think about breathing and oxygen/carbon dioxide diffusion Musculoskeletal System Bones and Joints Musculoskeletal System • The musculoskeletal system is what makes movement possible • It includes: o Bones • Solid organ that forms the skeleton o Muscles • Have the ability to contract, causing the body or internal organs to move o Joints • The junction between two or more bones 5 Functions of Skeleton • Movement o You can move your arm, leg, etc • Support o The reason we can stand upright • Protection o Rib cage protects your internal organs • Makes red blood cells o The marrow is where your blood cells and platelets are made • Storage o Internal cavities of bones store fat o Bony tissue stores minerals (e.g. calcium) Bone Structure Connectors • Ligaments o Connects bones to other bones • Tendons Lig… sounds like “like” Bone to bone = same o Connects muscle to bone • Cartilage o Acts as a cushion to protect the bones or keep certain passages open • Ex: nose, rings in trachea 3 types of muscle • Skeletal muscle o The only voluntary muscles (we can control them) o Connected to the bones of the skeleton • Smooth muscle o Makes up the wall of certain internal organs o They are involuntary (they work without us thinking about it) • Cardiac muscle o The muscles that make up the heart o Also involuntary Rectus abdominus Movement • • • • • Abduction – moving away from midline Adduction – moving toward midline Flexion – bending of body part Extension – straightening of body part Rotation – moving around its own axis In abduction -> the b points away from the a In adduction -> the d points towards the a Respiratory System Cellular Respiration • Cellular respiration is the process whereby cells extract the energy they need from nutrients such as glucose o This requires oxygen (O2) glucose C6H12O6 O2 Energy CO2 H 2O Respiratory System • Respiratory system made up of: o Respiratory tract o Lungs • Respiratory tract: o o o o o Nasal passages Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Respiratory System Breathing Respiration • Goal: o Extract oxygen (O2 ) from the air (for our cells) o Expel CO2 (waste) → this gas exchange takes place in the alveoli (miniature cavities filled with air that are surrounded by tiny blood vessels) Circulatory System, Blood Pressure & Blood Blood • Blood has a liquid component (plasma) in which different formed elements are found: o Red blood cells (erythrocytes)– carry oxygen o White blood cells (leukocytes) – important for immunity • Phagocytosis – the process whereby white blood cells ingest and destroy certain organisms • Responsible for creating antibodies o Platelets (thrombocytes) – responsible for clotting blood • Blood is the main mode of material transport around the body: o Oxygen, carbon dioxide, other wastes, nutrients, etc Blood Types • A person’s blood type is dependent on the antigens present on the red blood cells • A person can be either: o o o o o o o o A+ AB+ BAB+ ABO+ O- Blood Transfusions • These antigens play an important role in blood transfusions (injecting blood from one person into another): o I cannot receive what I do not have • Universal recipient o AB+ (has all the antigen types: A, B, Rh) • Universal donor o O- (has no antigens) The Heart Aorta Superior vena cava Right atrium Right ventricle Inferior vena cava Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Left atrium Right ventricle Heart & Blood Pressure • The heart is the organ that is central to the circulatory system – it pumps the blood around the body • When the heart fills with blood (low blood pressure) o Diastole • When the heart contracts to expel blood (high blood pressure) o Systole Good blood pressure 120/80 Blood Vessels • Blood vessels are divided into 3 categories: o Arteries • Carry blood away from the heart o Veins • Carry blood to the heart (viens) o Capillaries • The smallest blood vessels • Have very thin walls that allow for gas exchange between blood and cells of the body Constraints, Deformations & Material Properties Constraints • Mechanical constraint o The stress produced within a material when it is subjected to external forces o 5 types: • Tension • Torsion • Compression You did this last year! • Shearing • Flexion/bending Deformation & Properties • Deformation: o Constraints can have different effects on materials called deformations: • Elastic deformation (reversible- goes back to regular shape after) • Plastic deformation (keeps the shape it has been bent into) • Fracture (material breaks) Links • Linking o The basic mechanical function provided by any component that links two parts of an object o A link has 4 characteristics: • Direct or indirect • Rigid or flexible • Removable or non-removable • Complete or partial Direct vs Indirect • Direct: o Link connects parts without using some intermediary material (no glue, screws, tape) • Basically, the part fit together and come in direct contact with one another • Ex: LEGO pieces Note: rivets are indirect • Indirect: o The connection between the 2 components requires another fastener like glue or nails/screws o The two parts do not hold together on their own, they require an additional fastener Removable vs NonRemovable • Removable: o The parts can be separated without damaging them or the fastener • E.g. a pen cap from the pen • Non-Removable (permanent) : o If the 2 parts are separated at least one of them (or the fastener) will become damaged • E.g. when things are glued together Rigid vs Flexible • Rigid: o The link does not have any give; it is stuck in a particular position/shape • Flexible (Elastic): o The link allows the parts it is connecting to change positions or be deformed • The link can undergo deformation and then return to its original shape/position • Usually: rubber or springs are involved Complete vs Partial • Complete: o The link does not allow the parts to move independently of each other • If one part moves, the other will as well • Partial: o One part can move independently of the other • If one part moves, the other one does not necessarily o E.g. door and door frame Let’s look at an example: Link between the two prongs: Direct or indirect? Rigid or flexible? Removable or non-removable? • Complete or partial? • • • •