Download Anthro 101 (3) Taxonomy Primates Hadza

Primates!
Specifically the
EXTANT primates, i.e.,
the species that are
still alive today: these
include some
prosimians, some
monkeys, & some apes
(-next: fossil hominins,
who are extinct)
Taxonomy
What are primates?
Overview: What are primates?
•  Taxonomy of living
things
•  Distinguishing
primate
characteristics
•  Primate taxonomy:
distinguishing characteristics
within the Order Primate…
•  Prosimians (Strepsirhines)
–  Lorises
–  Lemurs
–  Tarsiers (?)
•  Anthropoids (Haplorhines)
–  Platyrrhines
•  Cebids
•  Atelines
•  Callitrichids
–  Catarrhines
•  Cercopithecoids
–  Cercopithecines
–  Colobines
•  Hominoids
–  Hylobatids
–  Pongids
–  Hominins
Taxonomy: Hierarchical and Linnean
(between Kingdoms and Species, but really not a totally accurate representation)
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Subspecies
Species
Genus
Family
Infraorder
Order
Class
Phylum
Kingdom
Tree of life
-based on traits we think we
observe
-Beware anthropocentrism,
the concept that humans may
regard themselves as the
central and most significant
entities in the universe, or
that they assess reality
through an exclusively
human perspective.
Taxonomy:
Kingdoms (6 here)
Kingdom
Animalia
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Ingestive heterotrophs
Lack cell wall
Motile at at least some part of their lives
Embryos have a blastula stage (a hollow ball of cells)
Usually an internal digestive chamber
Phyla in Kingdom Animalia
Phylum
Meaning
Group
Phylum
Meaning
Group
Acanthocephala
Thorny head
Thorny-headed worms
Mesozoa
Middle animals
Mesozoans
Acoelomorpha
Without gut
Acoels
Micrognathozoa
Tiny jaw animals
—
Annelida
Little ring
Segmented worms
Mollusca
Thin shell
Mollusks / molluscs
Arthropoda
Jointed foot
Arthropods
Myxozoa
Slime animals
Brachiopoda
Arm foot
Lamp shells
Nematoda
Thread like
Round worms
Bryozoa
Moss animals
Moss animals, sea mats
Nematomorpha
Thread form
Horsehair worms
Chaetognatha
Longhair jaw
Arrow worms
Nemertea
A sea nymph
Ribbon worms
Chordata
Cord
Chordates
Onychophora
Claw bearer
Velvet worms
Cnidaria
Stinging nettle
Coelenterates
Orthonectida
Straight swim
Ctenophora
Comb bearer
Comb jellies
Cycliophora
Wheel carrying
Symbion
Phoronida
Zeus' mistress
Echinodermata
Spiny skin
Sea Urchins
Placozoa
Tubular animals
Echiura
Spine tail
Spoon worms
Platyhelminthes
Flat worms
Flat worms
Entoprocta
Inside anus
Goblet worm
Porifera
Pore bearer
Sponges
Gastrotricha
Hair stomach
Meiofauna
Priapulida
Penis
Priapulid worms
Gnathostomulida
Jaw orifice
Jaw worms
Rhombozoa
Lozenge animal
—
Hemichordata
Half cord
Acorn worms
Rotifera
Wheel bearer
Rotifers
Kinorhyncha
Motion snout
Mud dragons
Sipuncula
Small tube
Peanut worms
Loricifera
Corset bearer
Brush heads
Tardigrada
Slow step
Water bears
Xenoturbellida
Strange flatworm
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Horseshoe worms
Phylum Chordata
•  Hollow dorsal nerve cord
•  Trends
–  Increasing cephalization
–  Increased activity levels
–  Increased predatory lifestyle
Phylum Chordata
•  Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates: filter-feeding sea
squirts)
•  Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets)
•  Subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones)
–  Infraphylum Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)
–  Infraphylum Gnathosomata (jawed vertebrates)
•  Superclass Osteichthytes (bony fishes)
•  Superclass Tetraposa (four-legged vertebrates)
Subphylum Vertebrata
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BACKBONES
Paired kidneys
Heart, aorta
Major transitions in some
ancestral vertebrates
–  Superclass: Tetrapoda (4 limbs to
locomote on land)
–  Amniotes
•  Shell, yolk, amnion, internal
fertilization
•  Amnion = a membrane building the
amniotic sac that surrounds and
protects an embryo. It is developed
in reptiles, birds, and mammals, but
not in amphibians and and fish
Class mammalia
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Therapsids were transitional mammal-like reptiles
–  Occupied a nocturnal niche that dinosaurs didn’t dominate
–  Increased metabolism to keep warm (bugs)
–  Chewing (mastication); specialized teeth
–  Legs under body to turn more easily
Mammals
–  Survived age of dinosaurs
–  First were tiny, nocturnal insectivores
–  Escaped predation
–  Survived global cooling
Adaptive Radiation(~ 0-65 mya)
Three groups:
Monotremes
Marsupials
Placental Eutherians
Mammals
•  What features distinguish mammals?
•  Hair made of keratin
•  Active metabolism
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endothermic
hair and fat for insulation
closed circulatory system + 4-chambered heart
respiratory system
connected to circulatory system
diaphragm, a powerful muscle to enhance respiration
•  Reproductive characteristics
•  Amniote egg without shell retained in uterus
•  Viviparity
•  Lactation
•  Cephalization
•  Large Brains-key to human evolution
•  Complex, social behaviors including parental care
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Monotremes
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Marsupials
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Platypuses and Spiny Anteaters
Lay reptilian, yolked eggs!
But have hair and produce milk to nourish their
young
Clear that modern monotremes are the survivors
of an early branching of the mammal tree; a later
branching is thought to have led to the marsupial
and placental groups
the egg is retained for some time within the
mother, who actively provides the egg with
nutrients. Monotremes also lactate, but have no
defined nipples, excreting the milk from their
mammary glands via openings in their skin
Extant in Australia and New Guinea, but
widespread before that based on fossil data
Opossums, kangaroos, koalas, sugar gliders
Born early
Complete embryonic development in pouch
Nourished by milk (mammary glands)
Diversified in Australia, few left in the Americas
(e.g., the opossum)
Convergent Evolution with Placental (Eutherian)
Mammals
Eutherians (Placentals)
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Long pregnancy
Complete development in utero
Nourished by a placenta
fetal membranes (chorion) and maternal tissues
intimately associated for gas exchange, nutrient
supply, and waste removal!
Mammals
More on Mammals
•  About 5400 species
around today
•  Particular jaw feature
defines mammals to
paleontologists
•  Vivipary in many (but not
limited to mammals—
some sharks, etc.)
•  Most are placental
•  Most are terrestrial
Orders in the Class Mammalia
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Order Macroscelidea: elephant shrews (Africa)
Order Afrosoricida: tenrecs and golden moles (Africa)
Order Tubulidentata: aardvark (Africa south of the Sahara)
Order Hyracoidea: hyraxes or dassies (Africa, Arabia)
Order Proboscidea: elephants (Africa, Southeast Asia)
Order Sirenia: dugong and manatees (ctropical)
Order Pilosa: sloths and anteaters (Neotropical)
Order Cingulata: armadillos (Americas) (pink fairy armadillo here)
Order Scandentia: treeshrews (Southeast Asia)
Order Dermoptera: flying lemurs or colugos (Southeast Asia)
Order Primates: lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes
Order Lagomorpha: pikas, rabbits, hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas)
Order Rodentia: rodents
Order Erinaceomorpha: hedgehogs
Order Soricomorpha: moles, shrews, solenodons
Order Chiroptera: bats
Order Cetartiodactyla: whales, dolphins and porpoises, even-toed
ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope,
cattle, sheep, goats
•  Order Perissodactyla: odd-toed ungulates, including horses, donkeys,
zebras, tapirs, and rhinoceroses
•  Order Pholidota: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia)
•  Order Carnivora: carnivores
•  Here: pink armadillo
Order: Primates
•  What is a primate?
•  Lots of diversity
Diversity
...200-300 species
Size
Lots of variation,
but there are trends…
Primates
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Motor adaptations
Large size variation across taxa
Five digits on hands and feet: pentadactylism
Mobile limbs
Nails instead of claws (on at least one digit)
Grasping digits with tactile pads (and fingerprints)
Erect posture with extensive head rotation
Rapid and precise muscle control
Opposable hallus (big toe) and thumb (pincer grip)
Prehensile hands and/or feet
Well-developed clavicles (collarbones)
Primates
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Sensory adaptations
Enlargement of eyes
Color vision
Binocular vision: overlapping fields of vision
Stereoscopic vision and forward facing eyes:
–  neural wiring: sensory information from each eye relayed to
both sides of brain
–  depth perception + accurate distance estimation
Primates
•  Cranial Adaptations
•  Reduced snout and olfaction
•  Dental characteristics
–  Heterodont dentition (canines, incisors, molars and
premolars)
–  Dental arcade (e.g., 2123 or 2133)
–  In most groups, 32 or 36 adult teeth
Teeth
Primates
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Life history characteristics
Delayed maturation
Increased infant dependency
Long gestation (pregnancy)
Long lifespan
Low reproductive rate
Large, complex brain
Primates
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Gregarious (many permanently live in groups)
Male-female social associations
Singleton births (in most species)
Arboreal
Diurnal
Grooming (practical and social functions)
Primates
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How many species?
200-300(academic debates,
hybrids…)
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Future DNA sequencing may
help sort it out, but maybe not,
as genes may or may not
address issues of human views
on essentialism (c.f., Bloom s
book of recent)
New primate species are found
every few years or so, in
swampy areas that
primatologists have a hard time
getting around in
Extinction: pets and bushmeat
(the next slide is rough)
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Lavasoa Dwarf Lemur dicsovered in 2012 on Madagascar
Bushmeat and pets
Nonhuman (and undomesticated) animals
are NOT meant to be pets
•  These are animals with social lives that are
significant: primates tend to be social, are
NOT domesticated, and do not make good
pets
•  Food and trophies
•  (…a Western construct?)
•  Discussion?
Order Primates
•  Prosimians (Strepsirhines)
–  Loris group
–  Lemur group
–  Tarsiers (?)
•  Anthropoids (Haplorhines)
–  Platyrrhines
•  Cebids
•  Atelines
•  Callitrichids
–  Catarrhines
•  Cercopithecoids
–  Cercopithecines
–  Colobines
•  Hominoids
–  Hylobatids
–  Pongids
–  Hominids
Order Primates
•  Prosimians (Strepsirhines)
–  Loris group
–  Lemur group
–  Tarsiers (?)
•  Anthropoids (Haplorhines)
–  Platyrrhines
•  Cebids
•  Atelines
•  Callitrichids
–  Catarrhines
•  Cercopithecoids
–  Cercopithecines
–  Colobines
•  Hominoids
–  Hylobatids
–  Pongids
–  Hominids
Rhinarium = nose
wet, connected to upper lip
strepsirhine
Dry, not connected to lip
haplorhine
Primates
•  The order Primates consists of two major suborders:
the Prosimians and the Anthropoidea. The
prosimians were the first of the suborders to evolve;
they are often called the "lower primates" The word
prosimian literally means "pre-monkey."
•  Strepsirhines = prosimians
•  Haplorhines = anthropoids (monkeys and apes)
Primates
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Prosimians
Dental comb
Postorbital opening
Smaller brain
Grooming claw
Many nocturnal species
More seasonal breeding
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Anthropoids
Dental comb absent
Postorbital closure
Larger brain
Nails on all digits
Few nocturnal species
Less seasonal breeding
Postorbital Closure
Dental comb
Lemur catta
Prosimians
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Nose
–  Moist, naked rhinarium with the upper lip attached internally; greater reliance on
olfaction than Haplorhine
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Facial expression: less range possible (than for Haplorhini), partially because of
attached upper lip; also far fewer structural featuress like tendons and muscles
in their faces
Grooming "claw" on pedal digit for several (2nd digit)
Teeth
–  dental formula (with some exceptions): 2133/2133
–  dental comb: elongated incisors used for grooming
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Reproduction is generally seasonal
Activity Period
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often (but not always) nocturnal (or cathemeral)
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Many diurnal prosimians on Madagascar (where no diurnal monkeys or apes occur)
nocturnal species have large eyes possessing tapetum lucidum
–  occasionally large & diurnal
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Infant care
–  nocturnal species often "park" their infants or cache them in nests while foraging
–  cathemeral & diurnal species usually carry them
Prosimians
•  Lemuriformes: lemur group
–  Lemuridae (lemurs)
–  Indriidae (indris, avahis, sifakas)
–  Daubentoniidae (aye-ayes)
•  Lorisiformes: loris group
–  Loridae (lorises, pottos, angwantibos)
–  Galagonidae (galagos)
•  Tarsiformes (tarsiers)???
Lemuriformes
(the lemur family )
•  All only on Madagascar s perimeter
(extinct on mainland)
•  Lots of nocturnal species
Madagascar
• 22 or so mostly arboreal
species
• All members of lemur
group are only on
Madagascar s perimeter
(extinct on mainland)
Taxonomy: Prosimians
(lemur group)
Family
Cheirogaleidae
Mouse & dwarf lemurs
Lepilemuridae
Sportive lemurs
Body size*
Activity Period
General
Social
Pattern
"Special" Features
Tiny
Nocturnal
Solitary
- give birth to twins & cache
them in nests
- hibernate & accumulate fat
seasonally (in tails)
Small
Nocturnal
Solitary
- coprophagy
- sluggish
Lemuridae
"True" lemurs
Medium
Nocturnal
Diurnal
Cathemeral
Solitary
Social monogamy
Large multi-male, multifemale groups
Indriidae
Indri & sifaka & avahi
Small
(avahi )
Nocturnal
(avahi)
Solitary
(avahi)
Medium
(sifaka)
Dirunal
(indri, sifaka)
Multi-male, multi-female
groups
(sifaka)
Large
(indri )
Social monogamy
(indri)
- the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur
catta) = only significantly
terrestrial prosimian
- female dominance over
males sometimes
- female dominance over
males sometimes
Lemur
(lemur group)
Body size
Activity
Period
General
Social
Pattern
"Special"
Features
Medium
Nocturnal
Diurnal
Cathemeral
Solitary
Social
monogamy
Large multimale, multifemale groups
- the ring-tailed
lemur (Lemur
catta) = only
significantly
terrestrial
prosimian
- female
dominance
over males
sometimes
Lepilemur ( sportive lemur; lemur group)
Body size
Activity
Period
General
Social
Pattern
"Special"
Features
Small
Nocturnal
Solitary
Coprophagy,
sluggish
Mouse lemur (lemur group)
Body size
Activity Period
General
Social
Pattern
Tiny
Nocturnal
Solitary
"Special"
Features
- give birth to
twins & cache
them in nests
- hibernate &
accumulate fat
seasonally (in
tails)
Body size
Aye Aye
(lemur group)
Medium
Activity Period
General
Social
Pattern
"Special"
Features
Nocturnal
Solitary
- continuously
growing incisors
(rodent-like)
- thin spindly
middle finger
= largest
nocturnal
primate
Others in the lemur group
Indri
Avahi ( wooly lemur )
Others in the lemur group
Sifaka (hoppers because of long,
springy legs that let them jump 30
feet in trees)
http://www.arkive.org/verreauxssifaka/propithecus-verreauxi/
video-06b.html
Others in the lemur group
Body size
Activity Period
General
Social
Pattern
Small
(avahi )
Nocturnal
(avahi)
Solitary
(avahi)
Medium
(sifaka)
Dirunal
(indri, sifaka)
Multi-male, multifemale groups
(sifaka)
Large
(indri )
Social monogamy
(indri)
"Special"
Features
- female
dominance over
males sometimes
Lorisiformes (loris group)
Distribution (Africa and Asia)
Loris
Bushbaby (galago: loris-group prosimian)
Potto
Tarsier
Tarsier map
Tarsier issue in classification: prosimians or anthropoids?
order:
Primates
suborder:
Prosimii
infraorder
:
Lemuriformes
Anthropoidea
Lorisiformes
Tarsiformes
family:
Lemuridae
Indriidae
Daubentoniidae
Loridae
Galagonidae
Tarsiidae
species:
lemurs
indris
avahis
sifakas
aye-ayes
lorises
pottos
angwantibos
galagos
tarsiers
Tarsiformes
monkeys
apes
humans
?
Anthropoids
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Haplorhines
Dry, unconnected noses
Africa, Asia, South America
Monkeys, apes and humans
–  ***prosimians are NOT monkeys
•  Two groups
–  Catarhines
–  Platyrhines
Rhine = nose
Catarrhine: Old World Primate
Platyrrhine: New World Primate
Old/New World
Differences Between
Platyrrhines and Catarrhines
Platyrrhine vs. Catarrhine Dentition:
2133 vs. 2123
(usually)
New World Monkeys
Ceboidea
Family
Subfamily
Cebidae
Common Names
Body size
General Social
Pattern
Squirrel monkey
Small
Large, multi-male,
multi-female groups
Some Special Features
- strictly seasonal breeding
_______________________
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Capuchin monkey
- large brain
_________
- tool use
Medium
-adaptable & resourceful (like
Old World macaques)
- weakly prehensile tail
Callitrichidae
small
polyandry
tamarins,
twins, high paternal investment,
reproductive suppression
marmosets
Atelidae
Pithecinae
Uakaris & Sakis
Medium
Socially monogamous
Other?
Alouattinae
Atelinae
Howler monkeys
Spider monkey,
wooly monkey,
woolly spider
monkey
Large
Very large
One-male, multifemale groups
("harems")
Large fusion-fission
communities
red-faced uakari:sexual
selection?
Swamp dwellers (hard to study)
- LOUD howling
- prehensile tail (strong!)
- prehensile tails (strong &
dextrous!)
Interesting social patterns (kind
of like chimps and bonobos)
Cebids vs. Callitrichids
Callitrichids
juvenile golden lion tamarin
Pygmy marmoset (smallest primate)
Callitrichids
Golden
Lion
Tamarins
Emperor Tamarin
Moustached
Tamarin
Cotton Top
Tamarin
Common Marmoset
Atelines
Red-faced uakari
Howler monkey
Atelines: prehensile tails
Spider monkeys
Cebids
Squirrel monkey
Capuchin monkey
Catarrhines
•  Cercopithecoids: the Old World monkeys
–  Cercopithecines
–  Colobinae
•  Hominoidea: the apes
Old World Monkeys
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecines
Gelada
baboon
Hamadryas
baboon
Japanese
macaque
Cercopithecines: female-bonded
Celebes macaque
Colobines
Black and white colobus
Snub-nosed langur
Colobines
Proboscis monkey
Colobines eat a lot of leaves
Hominoidea: the Apes
Hylobatidae
Hominidae
Category
The “lesser”
apes
The “great” apes
The
“human”
apes
Common
names
Gibbons and
siamangs
Orangutans
Gorillas
Chimpanzees
Bonobos
humans
Distribution
Southeast
Asia
Borneo,
Sumatra
-Lowland gorilla in
West Central Africa
-Mountain gorilla in
volcanic mountains
bordering Rwanda,
Uganda, and Congo
Tropical
rainforests and
tropical forests of
West, East, and
North-central
Africa
Central African
Rainforests
South of the big
bend of the
Congo River
Global
(plus?)
Size
Large
(5-11 kg)
Huge
(35-70 kg)
Huge
(90-150 kg)
Huge
(30-45 kg)
Huge
(30-45 kg)
Huge
Grouping
Pattern
Socially
monogamous
Solitary
Group (1 alpha male,
his ‘harem,’ and their
kids)
Large fissionfusion
communities
Large fissionfusion
communities
Large
multimal/
multifemae
communitie
s
Ape Distribution
Brachiation
gibbon
siamang
Duetting (territoriality)
Monogamy
Orangutan
Orangutan
Gorilla
Gorilla: mountain vs. lowland
Chimpanzee
Chimpanzee
Bonobo
Human
Primates
•  Lots of morphological variation
–  Size, colors, dentition
•  Lots of variation in social group structure (many males and
many females in a group vs. monogamous pairs, etc.)
•  Lots of variance in social activity (solitary aye aye vs. the highly
gregarious capuchins and cercopithecines)
•  Lots of variance in locomotion
•  Lots of variance in diets
•  Lots of variance in susceptibility to predation (e.g., large vs.
small animals)
•  What accounts for this variance?
Primate Behavioral Ecologists
•  Primatologists who try to figure out
relationships between ecology, morphology,
behavior, and sociality
•  Includes social variables (e.g., dominance
and subordinance, fighting, mating, genetic
relatedness), ecological variables (e.g.,
seasonal foods, the presence of predators),
morphological variables (e.g., a very long
gut), etc.
Some Examples
•  Colobines (OWM) and howler monkeys
(NWM) eating leaves, but having very
different energy levels
•  Male gorillas having proportionately larger
teeth than females, even though they eat
leaves, not meat
•  When newly joining a group, male langurs will
selectively kill most or all infants who are still
nursing, then immediately mate with the
mothers (who agree to it!)
Goodall Films
•  Four classic films from the
1960s of Goodall s early
work with Gombe (Tanzania
—East Africa) chimpanzees
•  Introduction to
Chimpanzee Behavior
•  Infant Development
•  Feeding and Food
Sharing
•  Tool Using
The Hadza
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The Hadza are an ethnic group in central Tanzania, living around Lake
Eyasi in the central Rift Valley and in the neighboring Serengeti Plateau.
The Hadza number under 1000. Some 300-400 Hadza live as, huntergatherers much as they have for thousands, or even tens of thousands, of
years; according to some anthropologists, they are of the last few
functioning hunter-gatherers in Africa.
The Hadza are not closely related to any other people. While traditionally
considered an East African branch of the Khoisan peoples, primarily
because their language has clicks (see Pinker 167-168). The Hadza
language appears to be an isolate, unrelated to or very distantly related to
any other language. (e.g., 8 noun classes).
The Hadza subsist by hunting and gathering-foraging—which is what
hominins (including our ancestors) did for millions of years during and prior
to the evolution of anatomically modern humans
The lifestyle of the Hadza may be one of the world s current best indicators
of what life was like when humans evolved
Film (39 mins.) and how to take notes during a film
Hand Notes on The Hadza
Some notes on The Hadza
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Huts put up by women
They are hunter-gatherers (HGs)
Men hunt alone
Women gather plant foods
Hunt many impala
Men gamble in downtime, winning and losing mainly arrows but also bees, honey; gambling losses do not cause significant
hardships ad arrows can be replaced by making new ones within hours to days
No territoriality--people HG anywhere they want, unlike in most other HGs studied to the time the film was made
All hunting by adult men is with bow and arrow; no traps, snares, or nets; the force require to pull a bow is strong--throws
off accuracy but implants arrow more deeply; 90% misses in hunting (often due to inaccuracy point above)
Arrows with metal heads traded with other groups (for, e.g., honey)
Majority of food from wild berries and roots/tubers, though they consider themselves meat-eaters
Berries are abundant and many are eaten on the spot; food not stored past a day s worth of eating (some seasonal
variation)
Women about 2 hrs a day gathering all the food they need
Baobob trees have tasty fruits (ground and cooked to a porridge); some trees better than others; berries are not like sweet
wildberries--harder to eat; roots and tubers cooked; water from underground sources and water trapped in tree hollows
that are scarce during the dry season
Baobob and other locations have bees with honey and grubs
Honey can be traded to other groups for western items like pots, tobacco, cloth, axes, iron/aluminum, beads
One male duo did not find sufficient honey in one tree to walked a few miles to another known bee source
Only collect enough food to last until the next day
Dry months = more berries; wet months = more roots/tubers which are then more succulent
Grandmas collect large tubers and share them with everyone in the camp--not just their specific families
Hadza are nomads who only live in a particular camp for up to a few weeks
Sometimes live on rock shelters--important returned-to shelters are on hills which provide a good vantage point of
surrounding areas
An impala is killed; hidden from scavengers like vultures and hyenas until the hunter comes back with others to help carry
the carcass to camp
The fat, not so much the meat, is what is prized in the impala--most hunted foods are high in protein but low in fat
Boys practice hunting at young ages with wooden-tipped bows and arrows
Boys catch a hyrax and use it to procure additional hyraxes, than kill & eat them all (no waste and yet no saving food)