Download Impacts to Water Quality in the Murray

Impacts to Water Quality in the
Murray-Darling Basin arising from
Climate Change
LITERATURE REVIEW

Draft B

10 February 2011
Impacts to Water Quality in the MurrayDarling Basin arising from Climate
Change
LITERATURE REVIEW

Draft A

10 February 2011
Sinclair Knight Merz
ABN 37 001 024 095
590 Orrong Road, Armadale 3143
PO Box 2500
Malvern VIC 3144 Australia
Tel: +61 3 9248 3100
Fax: +61 3 9248 3400
Web: www.skmconsulting.com
LIMITATION: This report has been prepared on behalf of and for the exclusive use of Sinclair
Knight Merz Pty Ltd’s Client, and is subject to and issued in connection with the provisions of the
agreement between Sinclair Knight Merz and its Client. Sinclair Knight Merz accepts no liability or
responsibility whatsoever for or in respect of any use of or reliance upon this report by any third
party.
The SKM logo trade mark is a registered trade mark of Sinclair Knight Merz Pty Ltd.
Literature Review
Published by Murray-Darling Basin Authority
Postal Address GPO Box 1801, Canberra ACT 2601
Office location Level 4, 51 Allara Street, Canberra City
Australian Capital Territory
Telephone (02) 6279 0100 international + 61 2 6279 0100
Facsimile (02) 6248 8053 international + 61 2 6248 8053
E-Mail [email protected]
Internet http://www.mdba.gov.au
For further information contact the Murray-Darling Basin Authority office on
(02) 6279 0100
This report may be cited as: Sinclair Knight Merz, 2010, Impacts to water quality in the MurrayDarling Basin arising from Climate change, Murray-Darling Basin Authority, Canberra.
MDBA Publication No. 127/11
ISBN 978-1-921783-86-9
© Copyright Murray-Darling Basin Authority (MDBA), on behalf of the Commonwealth of
Australia 2011.
This work is copyright. With the exception of photographs, any logo or emblem, and any
trademarks, the work may be stored, retrieved and reproduced in whole or in part, provided that it
is not sold or used in any way for commercial benefit, and that the source and author of any
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Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968 or above, no part of this work may be
reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth. Requests
and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the MDBA Copyright
Administration, Murray-Darling Basin Authority, GPO Box 1801, Canberra ACT 2601
or by contacting + 61 2 6279 0100.
The views, opinions and conclusions expressed by the authors in this publication are not
necessarily those of the MDBA or the Commonwealth. To the extent permitted by law, the MDBA
and the Commonwealth excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not
limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or
indirectly from using this report (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained
within it.
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Literature Review
Contents
Glossary of Terms
6
1.
Purpose
1
1.1.
1.2.
1
2
2.
3.
4.
Project Objective
This report
Climate Change and the Murray-Darling Basin
3
2.1.
2.2.
3
4
Observed climate changes
Future climate change predictions
Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Quality
6
3.1.
3.2.
Introduction
Surface water quality drivers
6
6
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
Land use/Vegetation
Hydrology
7
8
3.3.
Climate change impacts
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
Direct impacts
Indirect impacts
Water quality – climate change relationships
13
14
15
3.4.
Climate change impacts in the Murray-Darling Basin
15
9
3.4.1.1. Dry Extreme
3.4.1.2. Wet Extreme
3.4.1.3. Interactions of wet and dry sequences
17
18
19
3.5.
20
Conclusions
Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater Quality
21
4.1.
4.2.
Introduction
Groundwater quality drivers
21
21
4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.2.3.
Watertable Elevation
Influence of water balance on water quality
Other drivers of groundwater quality
21
22
23
4.3.
Climate Change impacts on groundwater quality
23
4.3.1. Direct impacts on water balance
4.3.1.1. Precipitation
4.3.1.2. Recharge via Irrigation Returns
4.3.1.3. River Leakage
4.3.1.4. Evapotranspiration
4.3.1.5. Discharge to Streams
4.3.1.6. Groundwater pumping
4.3.2. Indirect impacts on water balance
23
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Literature Review
4.3.2.1. Agricultural water management
4.4.
5.
26
Potential impacts to groundwater quality in Murray-Darling Basin 26
4.4.1. Current groundwater quality issues
4.4.1.1. Sodic Soils
4.4.1.2. Trace Metals
4.4.1.3. Herbicides
4.4.1.4. Microbiota
4.4.1.5. Dryland Salinty
4.4.2. Potential climate change impacts
4.4.2.1. Dryland Salinity
4.4.2.2. Pollutants
4.4.2.3. Surface Water Quality
26
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4.5.
29
Conclusions and Recommendations
Water Quality in the Murray-Darling Basin
5.1.
5.2.
General summary
Region by Region
5.2.1. Barwon-Darling
5.2.1.1. Overview
5.2.1.2. Values
5.2.1.3. Threats
5.2.1.4. Water quality summary
5.2.2. Border Rivers
5.2.2.1. Overview
5.2.2.2. Values
5.2.2.3. Threats
5.2.2.4. Water quality summary
5.2.3. Campaspe
5.2.3.1. Overview
5.2.3.2. Values
5.2.3.3. Threats
5.2.3.4. Water quality summary
5.2.4. Condamine-Balonne
5.2.4.1. Overview
5.2.4.2. Values
5.2.4.3. Threats
5.2.4.4. Water quality summary
5.2.5. Goulburn-Broken
5.2.5.1. Overview
5.2.5.2. Values
5.2.5.3. Threats
5.2.5.4. Water quality summary
31
Error! Bookmark not defined.
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5.2.6. Gwydir
5.2.6.1. Overview
5.2.6.2. Values
5.2.6.3. Threats
5.2.6.4. Water quality summary
5.2.7. Lachlan
5.2.7.1. Overview
5.2.7.2. Values
5.2.7.3. Threats
5.2.7.4. Water quality summary
5.2.8. Loddon
5.2.8.1. Overview
5.2.8.2. Values
5.2.8.3. Threats
5.2.8.4. Water quality summary
5.2.9. Macquarie-Castlereagh
5.2.9.1. Overview
5.2.9.2. Values
5.2.9.3. Threats
5.2.9.4. Water quality summary
5.2.10. Moonie
5.2.10.1. Overview
5.2.10.2. Values
5.2.10.3. Threats
5.2.10.4. Water quality summary
5.2.11. River Murray
5.2.11.1. Overview
5.2.11.2. Values
5.2.11.3. Threats
5.2.11.4. Water quality summary
5.2.12. Murrumbidgee
5.2.12.1. Overview
5.2.12.2. Values
5.2.12.3. Threats
5.2.12.4. Water quality summary
5.2.13. Namoi
5.2.13.1. Overview
5.2.13.2. Values
5.2.13.3. Threats
5.2.13.4. Water quality summary
5.2.14. Ovens
5.2.14.1. Overview
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6.
5.2.14.2. Values
5.2.14.3. Threats
5.2.14.4. Water quality summary
5.2.15. Paroo
5.2.15.1. Overview
5.2.15.2. Values
5.2.15.3. Threats
5.2.15.4. Water quality summary
5.2.16. Warrego
5.2.16.1. Overview
5.2.16.2. Values
5.2.16.3. Threats
5.2.16.4. Water quality summary
5.2.17. Wimmera-Avoca
5.2.17.1. Overview
5.2.17.2. Values
5.2.17.3. Threats
5.2.17.4. Water quality summary
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5.3.
Assets dependent on good water quality
85
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
Environmental
Drinking water
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References
88
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Literature Review
Glossary of Terms
DO
Dissolved Oxygen
EC
Electrical Conductivity
GCM
Global Climate Model
MDB
Murray-Darling Basin
MDBA
Murray-Darling Basin Authority
TP
Total Phosphorus
TN
Total Nitrogen
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Literature Review
Document history and status
Revision
Date issued
Reviewed by
Approved by
Date approved
Revision type
R01
21/04/10
S.Treadwell/N.
Schofield
B. Atkinson
22/04/10
Technical Review
R01
22/04/10
T Church
B. Atkinson
23/04/10
PD Review
Distribution of copies
Revision
Copy no
Quantity
Issued to
R01
07/05/2010
1xword
Mathew Maliel, Alice Shields (MDBA)
Printed:
10 February 2011
Last saved:
10 February 2011 11:48 AM
File name:
I:\VWES\Projects\VW04982\Deliverables\Reports\Literature
Review\R01_bla_literature.docx
Author:
Dr Bonnie Atkinson
Project manager:
Dr Bonnie Atkinson
Name of organisation:
Murray-Darling Basin Authority
Name of project:
Impacts to Water Quality in the Murray-Darling Basin arising from Climate Change
Name of document:
Literature Review
Document version:
Draft A
Project number:
VW04982
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Literature Review
1.
Purpose
The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) drains one-seventh of the Australian land mass and is the most
significant agricultural area in Australia. Its water resources are highly utilised. Water is extracted
to supply irrigated agriculture and drinking water to major towns and cities (most notably
Adelaide). In addition, the MDB contains unique and diverse natural aquatic ecosystems, including
rivers and internationally recognised wetlands. These ecosystems support 46 native fish species
(Lintermans, 2007), and abundant birdlife, frogs, macroinvertebrates, mammals and plant life. The
rivers and water bodies also have high recreational and cultural significance. All these beneficial
uses of the water resources in the Murray Darling Basin are strongly dependent on good water
quality.
Climate change is likely to impact on the future quality of the MDB’s water resources, primarily
through changes to the primary drivers of surface water quality - river hydrology and land use.
Climate change may influence both river hydrology and land use through changed rainfall amounts
and patterns, as well as rising temperatures (Jones et al., 2002). This is likely to affect surface water
quality through higher water temperatures, altered flow regimes and water quality impacts
associated with extreme events, including floods, bushfires and droughts (Bates et al., 2008). These
changes will exacerbate the stress on rivers in the MDB that are already under pressure from high
water use, salinity and declining water quality. Climate change impacts are also likely to affect
groundwater resources through changes to the groundwater levels in key aquifers which will result
in changes to groundwater-surface water interactions and their salt dynamics.
Climate change risks to the basin’s water quality and quantity are complex and spatially varied.
The Murray-Darling Basin Authority (MDBA) is striving to better understand the cumulative
impacts of risks, the interaction between risks and the effectiveness of actions to mitigate risk. This
project will help to inform the Risk Assessment Program within the MDBA and forms one of the
three synthesis reports of Phase 2 of the overarching project ‘Implications of Climate Change for
Natural Resource Management in the Murray-Darling Basin’. The findings of these synthesis
reports will be developed into a framework for managing risks to the Basin’s water resources into
the future.
1.1.
Project Objective
The objective of this study is to assess the risks to the water quality values in the Murray-Darling
Basin under four climate scenarios:
a. ‘Wet extreme’ (wet extreme scenario and associated modelled rainfall and runoff
(CSIRO, 2008l))
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b. ‘Return to normal’ (continuation of long-term averages 1895-2006 for rainfall and
runoff)
c. ‘Median 2030’ (median global warming scenario and associated modelled rainfall
and runoff (CSIRO, 2008l)
d. ‘Dry extreme’ (actual climate experienced during 1997-2006, including 15% less
rainfall and 50% less runoff)
The scope of the project includes both the northern and southern parts of the Murray-Darling Basin
and will address:
1) Water quality trajectories in main-stem rivers in each of the MDB regions based on ‘end-ofvalley’ sites;
2) Water quality trajectories for 1-2 examples of iconic wetlands, drinking water reservoirs,
irrigation infrastructure and groundwater aquifers; and
3) General water quality impacts from ‘extreme events’ (e.g. bushfires, hot weather, extended
drought, flooding).
1.2.
This report
This report contains a literature review of the potential impacts to water quality arising from
climate change. The key drivers of water quality in rivers and reservoirs are explored, followed by
a synthesis of how climate change is anticipated to directly and indirectly affect water quality. The
potential changes to water quality in the MDB with climate change are discussed and some casestudies presented. This report also provides a general summary of water quality issues in the basin,
and a regional summary of the water quality dependent values, their threats and general trends. The
conceptual understanding and regional knowledge documented in this report provides the necessary
background information to feed into the risk assessment phase of this project.
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2.
Climate Change and the Murray-Darling Basin
Climate change is likely to have the greatest future impact on water resources in the MDB
{CSIRO, 2008 #4}. It is predicted to cause rising temperatures, change the amount and distribution
of rainfall, and increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather-related events (e.g.
cyclones, prolonged droughts, major floods) across the MDB. This has implications for both water
availability and land use, which are the two key drivers of water quality in rivers, wetlands,
reservoirs and water supply systems.
2.1.
Observed climate changes
Australia is experiencing rapid climate change. There has been an increase in mean surface air
temperatures and the frequency of heat-waves. The rainfall amounts and patterns have also
changed. The northwest of the MDB has seen an increase in rainfall, while much of southeast MDB
has experienced a decline (BOM, 2010).
Since 1960, the mean temperature in Australia has increased by about 0.7 °C (Figure 2-1). The long
term trend in temperature is clear, but there is still substantial year to year variability. The northern
section of the MDB has experienced larger temperatures increases than the southern corner.
Warming has occurred in all seasons, however, the strongest warming has occurred in spring (about
0.9 °C) and the weakest in summer (about 0.4 °C) (CSIRO, 2010). In addition, the number of hot
days has increased each decade over the past 50 years, with 2000 to 2009 the warmest decade on
record (CSIRO, 2010).

Figure 2-1 Trend in mean temperature 1960-2009 (°C/decade) Source: Bureau of Meteorology 2010
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There is a clear east-west rainfall and runoff gradient across the MDB, with most of the runoff
generated in upland catchments in the south-east. The geographic distribution of rainfall has
changed significantly over the past 50 years (Figure 2-2)(CSIRO, 2010). Rainfall has decreased
markedly across the MDB, particularly in the southern basin from 1997-2006 due to the ‘Big-Dry’
drought, which may be linked to climate change.

2.2.
Figure 2-2 Trend in annual rainfall 1960-2009 (mm per decade) Source: Bureau of Meteorology 2010
Future climate change predictions
There is considerable uncertainty in the climate change predictions for the future, particularly when
they are translated to the local-scale for regions within the MDB. A more detailed synthesis of
climate change and the MDB can be found in CSIRO (2008l) and SKM (2009a). Of note, there are
significant differences in the future rainfall projections between the 15 Global Climate Models
(GCMs). Therefore, in order to assess the risks to water quantity and quantity in the MDB from
climate change, it is appropriate to consider a range of future climate scenarios, which are outlined
in Table 2-1.
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
Table 2-1 Future climate change scenarios to be considered in this study
Future Climate Change
Scenarios
Description
Historical Climate


Wet Extreme 2030


Median 2030


Dry Extreme 2030


‘Most favourable 2030’ scenario (continuation of long-term
averages 1895-2006 for rainfall and runoff)
The baseline for comparison with other scenarios. The actual 1895
to 2006 climate as represented in the river models used for
developing current water sharing plans (CSIRO, 2008l).
Wet-extreme 2030 climate in CSIRO (2008l)
A range of possible future climates have been predicted using 15
GCMs, some predicting increases in rainfall, others a decrease.
This scenario represents the ‘wet-extreme’ scenario and includes
increases in rainfall and runoff by up to 11% across the MDB. It
endeavours to capture the uncertainty in the range of future
scenarios.
‘Median 2030’ scenario (medium global warming scenario and
associated modelled rainfall and runoff) (CSIRO 2008)
The median of likely climate changes by 2030 would be an 11 %
reduction in average surface water availability across the MDB.
This includes a 9 % reduction in average surface water availability
in the north, and a 13 % reduction in the south-east where the
majority of runoff is generated (CSIRO, 2008l).
Dry extreme 2030 climate CSIRO (2008l)
‘Least favourable 2030’ scenario (actual climate experienced
during 1997-2006, including 15% less rainfall and 50% less
runoff)
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3.
Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water
Quality
3.1.
Introduction
This chapter considers the impacts to surface water quality arising from climate change. The key
drivers of water quality in rivers and reservoirs are explored, followed by a synthesis of how
climate change may directly and indirectly affect water quality. The current surface water quality
issues in the MDB and potential changes to water quality with climate change are discussed and
case-studies presented.
3.2.
Surface water quality drivers
The primary drivers of surface water quality are surrounding land use and catchment hydrology
(Figure 3-1). These two drivers dictate the contaminant loads and in-stream concentrations and to a
lesser extent the in-situ biogeochemical processes that occur. Thus, land use, catchment hydrology
and in-situ biogeochemical processes are important determinants of in-stream water quality .

Figure 3-1 Hydrological and land use effects on water quality (After SOE, 2009)
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3.2.1.
Land use/Vegetation
One of the most important drivers of surface water quality is land use (Quinn et al., 1997; Baker,
2003). It is clear from the literature that water quality is directly attributable to the following
characteristics of the catchment:



Percentage of native vegetation and riparian zone cleared and/or replaced with other species,
(Bunn et al., 1999; Rutherford et al., 2004);
Intensity of agriculture and nature of agricultural practices including animal stocking rates
(Sauer et al., 1999; Young and Huryn, 1999; Byers et al., 2005); and
Density of human population, urbanisation and effluent disposal practices (Brabec et al., 2002;
Walsh et al., 2005).
Contaminants derived from these catchment influences can enter waterways and wetlands by point
or non-point pathways. Point sources are typically from a specific location (usually a pipe or drain)
and include sewage treatment plant, industrial, agricultural and urban discharges. Sewage
treatment plant wastewater discharges and septic tank leakages are common sources of nutrients in
waterways. The volume of point source inputs to waterways is typically proportional to the level of
urbanisation in the catchment (Walsh, 2000).
Non-point sources are not as easily identifiable. These sources of contaminants include runoff from
farms, roads or lawns and erosion within the catchment. Nutrients and suspended solids are
common in non-point runoff from farms and agricultural land, from use of fertilisers and stock
access to waterways. Soil erosion can also be related directly to land use, and in particular, the
amount of land-clearing (Prosser et al., 2003; Wallbrink, 2004). The major forms of soil erosion
are gully, rill and stream bank erosion. All forms are caused by poor ground cover, drought, intense
rainfall and/or unstable soils. Erosion is a major source of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides in
surface water from catchments dominated by agricultural land (Prosser et al., 2003). Influence from
non-point sources increase markedly during periods of heavy rainfall and increased runoff.
Water quality is responsive to changes in vegetation and land-use. For instance, if cropping in one
area ceases there will be lower pesticide levels from reduced spraying, less turbidity from disturbed
soils, fewer nutrients from fertiliser additions and fewer irrigation demands, outfalls, and drainage
requirements. Similarly, a reduction in the stocking rate of dairy cattle can reduce nutrients and soil
erosion (Sauer et al., 1999).
The type and severity of contamination from both point and non-point pathways are therefore
linked directly to human activity. The following water quality parameters are typically affected:

Physical - pH, temperature, total suspended solids and turbidity);
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

Chemical - electrical conductivity, nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus), dissolved oxygen, organic
carbon, pesticides and biochemical oxygen demand; and
Microbiological - Bacteria (faecal coliforms, E.Coli, Algae).
3.2.2.
Hydrology
Catchment hydrology has a complex relationship with water quality. However, it remains one of
the key water quality drivers. The nature of the relationship depends strongly on the individual
catchment and associated river system. Water quality is directly attributable to the following
characteristics of the catchment and river hydrology:



Source of water (i.e. groundwater, surface runoff, snow melt; irrigation transfers, flow releases
from dams, stormwater, point sources);
Flow impoundments (i.e. weirs, dams, diversions); and
Flow regime (i.e. frequency and timing of freshening flows, high flows, low flows and ceaseto-flow events, river connectivity) (Poff et al., 1997; Richter et al., 1997).
Good water quality typically is supported by a variable flow regime whereby each flow component
fulfils particular functions to restore or maintain water quality. For instance, summer freshening
flows can mix the water column and re-oxygenate refuge pools and control salinity levels, and
bank-full flows can flush excessive accumulations of organic matter from the stream channel to
prevent blackwater events. River regulation has disturbed the natural hydrology of most of the
rivers in the MDB, which has had flow-on effects for water quality. Extreme weather events, such
as drought and floods, also adversely affect water quality.
Water quality generally declines during drought conditions (Caruso, 2001; Caruso, 2002). The
slow flowing/still conditions during prolonged low flows and cease to flow events (in remnant
pools) provide favourable conditions for algal blooms. Salinity levels can increase in some areas
when saline groundwater constitutes a higher proportion of base flows. Water temperatures also
rise during summer low flows, with stratification and concomitant decline in dissolved oxygen
levels, which are critical for aquatic life (Caruso, 2001). There is also the potential in some areas
for the aeration of potential acid sulphate soils (McCarthy et al., 2006). Contaminants from point
sources, such as sewage treatment plants, can also be a higher proportion of the river flow, and can
therefore degrade water quality.
In contrast, large floods can initiate erosion and runoff in the catchment, transporting suspended
solids, nutrients and other contaminants into the waterways (Prosser et al., 2001). This can be of
particular importance when landscapes have been denuded of vegetation, for example from
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bushfires or severe droughts in the catchment, when large sediment and organic matter loads can
enter waterways and cause significant declines in water quality.
As a general principle, flowing water in rivers is in better condition than stationary water.
Stationary water bodies can thermally stratify, which increases the likelihood of algal blooms,
anoxic bottom water, the concentrations of metals, odour and taste problems. Flow releases from
the cool bottom waters of stratified water bodies such as dams can also alter the water temperature
of the river downstream for hundreds of kilometres, which may interfere with life-cycles for fish
and invertebrates (Gehrke et al., 2003).
3.3.
Climate change impacts
Climate change can have a range of impacts on various environmental drivers that directly and
indirectly affect water quality (Figure 3-2; Figure 3-3; Figure 3-4). While global warming is
predicted to increase air temperatures, the effect on precipitation and hence runoff is variable (Poff
et al., 1996). In some areas precipitation is expected to decrease and in other areas it will increase,
or remain relatively stable. In most arid, semi-arid and temperate regions of Australia, a reduction
in rainfall is most likely accompanied by an increase in the intensity of individual rainfall events
(Pittock, 2003; Dunlop and Brown, 2008). Although a reduction in rainfall intensity has been
noted during the recent drought {Verdon-Kidd, 2009 #60}. Together, elevated temperatures and
decreased rainfall result in decreased runoff and an increase in the frequency and duration of low
flow periods (Poff et al., 1996). While predictions for rainfall and runoff and highly uncertain,
some models forecast declines of up to 50% in runoff for some parts of the Basin by 2050,
compared to a historical baseline (1895-2006).
In this context, increasing air temperatures will both directly and indirectly affect water quality
while changes in precipitation and runoff will indirectly affect water quality. On this basis, we can
look to the literature on drought and low flows to gain insights into the potential direct and indirect
impacts of climate change on water quality.
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Climate Change
Increased Air Temperature
Increased water
temperature
Vegetation Change
Changes in nutrient
leaching rates
Changes in quality
and quantity of
organic matter
inputs
Increased microbial
activity in soils
Eutrophication
Changes to
ecosystem function
N, P
DOC, DO
Decreased oxygen
carrying capacity
Increased rates of
biological and
chemical reactions
Nutrient leaching
to surface water
Increased anoxia
Increased nutrient
and carbon cycling
N, P
DO
Blackwater events
Increased water
use
Earlier thermal
stratification of
pools and
reservoirs
Decreased volume
for dilution of
chemical through
evaporation
Reduced mixing
Deoxygenation of
hypolimnion
Increased salinity
Increased
concentrations of
nutrients and
toxicants
Algal blooms
DO, N, P, Toxicants
EC
N, P, Toxicants

Figure 3-2 Conceptual model for climate-change induced increased air temperature on water quality

Table 3-1 Table of references for conceptual model (TO BE COMPLETED)
Artificial flow
regime
Reservoir releases
Prolonged low
flows
Cold/warm water
pollution
DO, Temp
Temp
Vegetation Change
Increased water temperature
Increased water use
Species distribution changes, causing changes in nutrient leaching rates
{Esselmont, 2007 #63;Lovett, 1999 #62}
Decreased oxygen carrying capacity
Prolonged low flows caused by an artificial flow regime
Changes in the quality and quantity of organic matter inputs {Esselmont, 2007
#63}
Increased rates of biological and chemical reactions
Cold water pollution from reservoir releases {Astles, 2003 #7;Boys, 2009 #8}
Increased soil processing rates may cause increased leaching of nutrients in
the soil to surface water {Murdoch, 2000 #61}.
Earlier thermal stratification of pools and reservoirs
Decreased volume for dilution of chemicals through evaporation
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Climate Change
Less rainfall in some areas,
with more frequent and
intense events
Reduced runoff

Increased bushfire
frequency and
intensity
Low groundwater
levels
Increased water
use/flow regulation
Less allochthonous
organic matter
entrained in stream
Prolonged Low
flows/Cease-to-flow
events
Less surface water
to dilute pointsource inputs
Erosion and massive
organic matter loads
Lower base flows
Arficial flow regime
Reservoir releases
Change to
ecosystem function
Diurnal extremes in
temperature and
dissolved oxygen
Less dilution of
contaminants
Contaminant laden
runoff during first
intense rainfall postbushfire
High surface
water/groundwater
contribution
Blackwater events;
Acid Sulfate Soils
Cold/warm water
pollution
DOC, DO
Temp, DO
N, P, Toxicants
N, P, TSS, OC, DO, EC
EC
DO, Temp, pH
Temp
Figure 3-3 Conceptual model for climate-change induced less rainfall on water quality
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Climate Change
More rainfall in some areas,
with more frequent and
intense events
Increased runoff

Increased flooding
frequency and
intensity
High groundwater
levels
Irrigation Allocations
increase
Increase in nutrient
and TSS loads to
reservoirs
Diffuse source runoff
from agricultural and
urban areas
Overflow of sewage,
stormwater and
other (i.e. tailing
dam) infrastruture)
Erosion
Higher base flows
Reservoir releases
Eutrophication
Higher contaminant
loads
Episodic increases in
contaminant loads
Catchment and river
bank erosion
Saline groundwater
intrusion
Cold/warm water
pollution
Algal blooms
N, P, TSS, Pesticides
N, P, E.coli, TSS, BOD
N, P, TSS, OC, DO, EC
EC
Temp
Figure 3-4 Conceptual model for climate-change induced increased rainfall on water quality
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3.3.1.
Direct impacts
River and reservoir surface water temperatures will increase proportionally to increasing air
temperatures, directly resulting in a variety of impacts including:





In water storages, for irrigation or drinking water, increased temperature will result in the
earlier onset of stratification and the delayed mixing of the water column (Poff et al., 2002).
Consequently the problems associated with stratified water bodies will become more intense
and prolonged. Problems relating to algal blooms, anoxic water, dissolved metals (iron and
manganese), foul odour and taste, and downstream thermal pollution, are all related to
stratified reservoir waters. Even in the absence of changed nutrient inflows, reservoirs may
become more eutrophic due to increased rates of nutrient release from sediments. Feedback
loops may also establish whereby reduced stream inflows result in a reduction in turbidity and
DOC inputs which in-turn increase water clarity and light penetration, further increasing
temperature and creating or enhancing conditions conducive to algal blooms.
Increased temperature can increase rates of ecosystem functioning (primary productivity and
community respiration), higher CO 2 levels may also contribute to increased algal growth rates
(Hargrave et al., 2009). Increased temperatures also reduce the amount of oxygen than can be
dissolved in water. Sufficient dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column is critical for the
survival of fish and macroinvertebrates, hence any reduction in DO has the potential to impact
on a range of aquatic biota. Furthermore, DO is also important in a range of geochemical
reactions and biological processes. A reduction in DO can result in the release of nutrients and
heavy metals stored in sediment. This can result in eutrophication and increased algal growth,
and also impact on the quality of water for consumptive uses in particular taste and odour.
The life cycle of thermally sensitive fish and macroinvertebrates species may also be impacted
and some may become locally extinct if temperature increases are above their maximum
tolerance limits. Increased temperatures may also advantage some exotic pests, such as carp,
and enable them to colonise new habitats, while the distribution of cold-water species such as
trout may be restricted; and
Increased local evaporation rates will also impact water quality through the concentration of
pollutants including salt, metals, pesticides and nutrients in the water column.
The hydrology of the MDB is largely modified, particularly due to river regulation including
water storages and irrigation supply networks across the basin. Higher water temperatures and
reduced stream flows are likely to cause contaminants to accumulate and water quality may
become unacceptable to local users. Sediment, nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, pathogens,
pesticides and salt levels may all increase and dissolved oxygen levels may decline with
negative effects on ecosystems, human health, water system reliability and treatment costs.
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3.3.2.
Indirect impacts
Climate change may indirectly affect water quality through its primary drivers, land use and
catchment hydrology. The water quality issues that may manifest, or increase in frequency, in
rivers and wetlands due to climate change may include:







High nutrient, organic matter and sediment loads from erosion following extreme rainfall
events or extreme bushfire events, both of which are projected to increase with climate change.
Increases in salinity due to less rainfall and runoff increasing the relative proportion of
groundwater in rivers, which is compounded with increased water evaporation with higher
water temperatures;
Increased acidity from acid sulphate soils known to occur in the Murray Region due to
changed flow regime and wetting and drying cycles;
Changed climatic conditions are also likely to produce conditions that favour aquatic weeds
and algal blooms, such as lower flows and cease-to-flow events;
A reduction in runoff can lead to a longitudinal fragmentation of the river channel that
prevents the normal transport of nutrients and organic carbon downstream (Bond et al., 2008).
An accumulation of organic carbon combined with high temperatures and low DO can increase
the frequency of black‐water events resulting in significant impacts on aquatic biota, including
fish kills.
Impacts on stormwater quality/quantity, affected by the increase in the frequency and intensity
of extreme rainfall events; and
Impacts on water and wastewater infrastructure, due to extreme precipitation causing damage
to sewers and sewer overflows, which may increase sewer exfiltration into rivers.
Climate change may also affect future vegetation and land-use patterns within the MDB. This may
have both benefits and impacts on surface water and groundwater quality. Land use in the MDB is
predominantly agriculture. Agricultural runoff increases nutrient, contaminant and suspended
sediment loads in rivers through application of fertilisers, dairy effluents, use of pesticides and
erosion of soils. As a result, the surface water resources have been compromised by algal blooms,
rising salinity, sedimentation and pesticide contamination. Projected limitations on water
availability under climate change mean that traditional farming practices are no longer feasible in
some areas of the MDB. Therefore, the agricultural industry will continue to move towards
sustainable farming and water conservative practices, which will provide environmental benefits.
However, there may also be an increase in forestry in the region with follow on effects for the
water balance in affected regions2.
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3.3.3.
Water quality – climate change relationships
Water quality trajectories and associated impacts from climate change can be understood by
identifying how each parameter is affected by climate. Table 3-2 summarises the drivers and
consequences for each water quality parameter of interest.

Table 3-2 Drivers and consequences of changes to each water quality parameter
Parameter
Driver (s)
Consequence (s)
Dissolved oxygen
Temperature
Land use
Stream flow
Fish kills
Water treatment issues
Release of contaminants
Nutrients
Land use
Floods
Algal blooms
Aquatic weeds
Turbidity
Land use
Floods
Water treatment issues
Unsuitable for recreation
Salinity
Water balance
Stream flow
Unsuitable for irrigation
Unsuitable for drinking
Water Temperature
Air Temperature
Stream flow
Thermal stratification
Increased rates of ecosystem processes
Thermal intolerance of fauna
pH
Stream flow – wetting and drying
cycles of wetlands
Land use – mining
Unsuitable for recreation
Unsuitable for drinking
Unsuitable for irrigation
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
Land-use
Stream flow
Fish kills
Water treatment issues
Release of contaminants
3.4.
Climate change impacts in the Murray-Darling Basin
Climate change is expected to have highly variable localised impacts to water quality across the
MDB. These impacts will be diverse, reflecting the diverse nature of the weather patterns of the
basin.
Overall, the southern basin is expected to become drier, whereas the northern basin may either get
wetter or drier (Table 3-3). The wet extreme 2030 scenario is predicted to produce a 50% increase
in water availability in the northern basin, but in the southern basin the water availability will not
change significantly from historical conditions. The median and dry extreme 2030 scenarios all
predict a decline in water availability. The southern basin may experience a 50% decrease under
the dry extreme 2030 scenario (Table 3-3).
Less water availability equates to less water in rivers and reservoir, and also less water allocations
to support agricultural activities. The resultant changes in hydrology and land use are likely to
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affect water quality. These dry and wet scenarios, and the resultant effects on water quality, are
considered below.
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
Table 3-3 Percentage changes in water availability in each region of the MDB under the
2030 climate change predictions (After CSIRO, 2008l)
Location in
MDB
2030 Climate Change Scenarios
Historical
(1895- 2006)
Wet
Median
Dry
NW
445
41%
-3%
-16%
Warrego
N-NW
420
47%
-6%
-30%
Condamine-Balonne
N-NE
1363
19%
-8%
-26%
Moonie
NE
98
24%
-11%
-29%
Border Rivers
NE
1208
18%
-10%
-26%
Gwydir
NE
782
34%
-10%
-29%
Namoi
NE
965
38%
-5%
-30%
E
1567
26%
-7%
-25%
N-Central
41*
49%
-2%
-22%
Central
1139
6%
-11%
-30%
S-Central
4270
13%
-9%
-28%
Murray
SE-SW
5211*
3%
-11%
-36%
Ovens
SE
1776
1%
-13%
-45%
Goulburn-Broken
SE
3233
-3%
-14%
-45%
S
275
-4%
-16%
-46%
Loddon-Avoca
SW
285
-5%
-18%
-49%
Wimmera
SW
219
-5%
-21%
-53%
-18%
-52%
Region
Paroo
Macquarie-Castlereagh
Barwon-Darling
Lachlan
Murrumbidgee
Campaspe
Eastern Mount Lofty
SW
120
-3%
Ranges
*only the fraction of the water availability generated in the catchment is shown.
3.4.1.1.
Dry Extreme
The ‘Dry’ climate change scenario is likely to affect surface water quality primarily by reducing
surface water flows and increasing water temperatures. In the northern basin, the ephemeral
Warrego, Paroo and Moonie Rivers may not have any flow during dry years. Analysis of historical
water quality conditions in some ‘representative’ rivers in the MDB has shown that general water
quality declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows corresponding to the
water quality record) (see Appendix A). There has been observed increases in water temperature in
the Wimmera River (southern part of Basin) and a decline in dissolved oxygen levels. In the
Darling River, dry conditions have led to an increase in algal blooms and a rise in pH.
However, the relationships between some water quality parameters and ‘dry conditions’ varies
across the basin. For instance, nutrient levels declined in the Darling River, but increased in the
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Wimmera River during dry years. This is likely to be a result of the ratio of point (continuous) vs.
non-point (more likely during rainfall) sources of nutrients within the respective catchments.
Similarly, salinity increased in the Darling River, but declined in the Wimmera River during dry
years. This is related to the response of groundwater levels to the drought and to extractions.
Typically however, salinity levels increase during dry conditions.
Some water quality parameters improve during ‘dry conditions’. An example is turbidity, which is
typically related to runoff and erosion generated during heavy rainfall.
Dry Extreme 2030 Climate Change Scenario – Expected Water Quality Changes
(red parameters indicate a decline in condition)
↑ Water temperature
↓ Dissolved oxygen
↑ Algal Blooms
↓ Nutrient loads (where no signif. point sources)
↑ Salinity
3.4.1.2.
↓ Turbidity
Wet Extreme
The ‘wet climate’ scenario is likely to affect water quality primarily by increasing pollutant loads
from runoff, soil erosion, flash flooding and stormwater. Analysis of historical water quality
conditions in some ‘representative’ rivers in the MDB has shown that water quality generally
improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 90th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record) (see Appendix A).
The diurnal and seasonal water temperatures are less variable when river flows are higher due to
the larger mass of water. Dissolved oxygen levels are generally higher in wet years due to lower
temperatures and more aeration in flowing systems. However, during summer dissolved oxygen
levels can also decline in wet years which may be due to the entrainment of organic matter on the
floodplain leading to blackwater events – this however typically follows extended dry periods.
Salinity levels are also lower during wet years because of the dilution of groundwater inputs with
fresh surface water runoff. This is the case in both the Darling and Wimmera Rivers in wet years.
Nutrient and turbidity loads may increase in rivers and reservoirs due to increased runoff (nonpoint sources) from agriculture, stormwater drains and roads. Increases in turbidity are significant
during wet years, compared to dry years in the Darling River and compared to both dry and
‘normal’ years in the Wimmera River. Soil erosion is also likely to contribute to sediment loads if
storms and flash flooding become more frequent. Erosion and increased runoff is particularly likely
following bushfires in the catchment, which are also predicted to increase with climate change.
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Wet Extreme 2030 Climate Change Scenario – Expected Water Quality Changes
(red parameters indicate a decline in condition)
↓ Water temperature
↓ Salinity
↓ Algal Blooms
3.4.1.3.
↑ Dissolved oxygen
↑ Turbidity
↑ Nutrient loads
Interactions of wet and dry sequences
Antecedent conditions, weather sequences and the interactions of flow components (e.g. winter
high flows, followed by summer low flows) are important factors that either increase or decrease
the likelihood of water quality decline within waterways. Two pertinent examples are blackwater
events and bushfire-related water quality impacts.
Blackwater events are a dark discolouration of the water column usually associated with high
concentrations of dissolved organic matter and low dissolved oxygen levels. These events typically
occur when organic matter (e.g. leaf litter) on the floodplain becomes entrained in the water
column in warm, slow-flowing conditions. Blackwater events cause deoxygenation of the water
column, and the release of tannins at toxic concentrations, leading to fish kills and other ecological
impacts. The time since the last flood is an important determinant of the quantity of accumulated
organic matter on the floodplain and within the channel margin. The period of time between high
flows and floods may increase under the ‘dry extreme’ climate change scenario, thereby increasing
the likelihood and potential severity of blackwater events from any flow increases.
Bushfires, followed by intense rainfall events, present a high risk of severe water quality impacts.
Climate change scenarios suggest that there could be increasing frequency of fire weather in the
future, potentially leading to more frequent and intense bushfires under the ‘dry extreme’ climate
change scenario. Bushfires present a risk to water quality when they are followed by intense
rainfall events. This generates bushfire-laden runoff, rich in nutrients, organic matter and
suspended solids, which can dramatically decrease water quality by lowering dissolved oxygen
levels (though organic matter decomposition), extremely high turbidity and follow-on effects such
as algal blooms. The period of time between the bushfire and the rainfall event, and the intensity of
the rainfall event, determines the severity of impact. After 3-6 months, the vegetation begins to
regrow and can filter the runoff prior to it entering the waterway.
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3.5.
Conclusions
Impacts to surface water quality arising from climate change may occur directly through increasing
surface temperatures and also indirectly through changes in catchment hydrology and surrounding
land-use. Both the Dry Extreme and Wet Extreme 2030 climate change scenarios present a risk to
water quality in rivers, reservoirs and wetlands in the MDB.
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4.
Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater
Quality
4.1.
Introduction
Groundwater resources are less susceptible than surface water to short term climate variability;
they are more affected by long-term trends as they are buffered by their sometimes large storage
volumes. Relative to surface water, very little research has been undertaken to determine the
sensitivity of aquifers to changes in critical input parameters, such as precipitation and runoff
(Allen et al., 2004; Woldeamlak et al., 2007; Brouyere et al., 2004; Gleick, 2000) despite the fact
that groundwater constitutes approximately 16 % of total water use in the MDB (CSIRO, 2008).
Changes in regional temperature and precipitation have great implications for all aspects of the
hydrologic cycle. Variations in these parameters determine the volume of water that reaches the
land surface, evaporates or transpires back to the atmosphere, becomes stored as snow or ice,
infiltrates the groundwater system, runs off the land and ultimately becomes baseflow to streams
(Allen et al., 2004). Therefore, as part of the hydrologic cycle, groundwater systems will be
affected by changes in recharge (i.e. precipitation and evapotranspiration) potentially by the
changes in the nature of the interactions between groundwater and surface water systems and
changes in use related to irrigation.
4.2.
Groundwater quality drivers
4.2.1.
Watertable Elevation
The elevation of the shallow aquifer watertable is one of the primary drivers of groundwater quality
in the Murray Darling Basin. The elevation of the watertable is attributed to many groundwater
quality issues, including;

Dryland salinity

Groundwater salinity

Concentration of pollutants
Changes in watertable elevation are linked to landuse changes. For example, the issue of dryland
salinity in Australia is associated with clearing of perennial vegetation in agricultural regions and
replacement with annual crop and pasture species. This change in landuse has allowed more
rainfall to remain unused by the plants, to enter the groundwater system and to ultimately elevate
the watertable.
The depth to watertable is also important in the timing of changes in groundwater conditions. The
effects of change in the water balance as felt at the land surface is lagged when recharge has to
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traverse large unsaturated zones. That is, it can sometimes take long periods of time (greater than
100s of years) for infiltration to pass beyond ground level to eventually reach the watertable.
Where large lag times in recharge occur, the timing of changes is affected. In some cases, climate
change impacts may not be felt at the watertable for some substantial time into the future.
4.2.2.
Influence of water balance on water quality
The hydrologic cycle represents the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, the
Earth’s surface (glaciers, snowpack, streams, wetlands and oceans), soils, and rocks. The
hydrologic cycle is driven by solar energy that heats the Earth’s surface and causes water from the
surface to evaporate, sublimate and transpire. Water is transported from the atmosphere, back to the
Earth’s surface as precipitation, falling as either rain or snow (SKM, 2009).
Exchange of atmospheric water to groundwater can occur via infiltration of rainfall or snowmelt
through the soil profile. Water may also run off the Earth’s surface and infiltrate to groundwater via
streams, channels and wetlands. These processes, by which water from the surface, enters the
groundwater system is called recharge. In detail, the process whereby water moves across the land
surface is termed infiltration, where it moves past the base of the root zone it is called deep
drainage (or root zone drainage) and where it crosses the watertable to groundwater it is termed
recharge.
Loss of groundwater to the atmosphere occurs through the process of evapotranspiration. This
includes direct evaporation of shallow groundwater and transpiration by vegetation. Groundwater
may also flow into streams, springs, wetlands, oceans, or be extracted via groundwater pumping for
human use. The process by which water is removed from groundwater is called discharge. The
difference between recharge and discharge determines the volume of water in groundwater storage.
Any variations in climate have the potential to affect recharge, discharge and groundwater quality,
either directly, or indirectly. An example of a direct impact would be reduced recharge due to a
decrease in precipitation. An indirect impact would be a reduced risk of dryland salinity, due to
reduced watertable elevations. Groundwater quantity, and quality can also be affected by water use
and land use change. Examples include changes to groundwater pumping regimes, damming of
rivers, clearing of woody vegetation and conversion of dryland agriculture to irrigation.
As the climate changes, these cycles are susceptible to change, affecting the quantities, and
distribution of water throughout the cycle. These effects are discussed below, along with the water
quality implications of these changes.
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4.2.3.
Other drivers of groundwater quality
Anthropogenic drivers include any changes to the quality of recharging water, and changes
wrought by anthropogenic-driven processes within the aquifer. The latter relate primarily to
changes caused by extraction. The quality of recharging waters can be affected by a large range of
processes, but are usually related to irrigation or urban development.
4.3.
Climate Change impacts on groundwater quality
4.3.1.
Direct impacts on water balance
Groundwater recharge can occur in a diffuse form from precipitation via the unsaturated zone or it
can occur locally from surface water bodies. The primary climatic driver for groundwater recharge
is precipitation. Temperature and CO 2 concentrations are also important as they affect
evapotranspiration and therefore the portion of precipitation that reaches the aquifer. Other factors
also affect groundwater recharge, including; land cover, soil type, geology, topographic relief and
the type of aquifer.
4.3.1.1.
Precipitation
Beare & Heaney (2002) examined the impacts of climate change on the hydrological cycle,
particularly stream and groundwater flows, water quality and irrigated agriculture in Australia’s
Murray Darling Basin. A simulation model was used to investigate the impact of changes in
precipitation and evapotranspiration for two of the climate scenarios developed by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The scenarios included a decrease in precipitation
and an increase in evaporation over much of the Murray-Darling Basin.
This study found that under both of the climate scenarios the impact of climate change on the
diffuse recharge component of the hydrologic cycle was a reduction in recharge to the groundwater
system and a general lowering of watertable elevations.
A study by Woldeamlak et al. (2007) focused on the effects of climate change on the water balance
and groundwater system of a sandy aquifer near Brussels. A wet, cold and dry scenario was
considered. For the dry scenario, recharge was the most sensitive parameter and decreased for all
seasons. More water was lost than could be replenished due to low precipitation and high
evapotranspiration, especially by forests. This led to decreases in annual groundwater levels by as
much as 3 m in the aquifer. The consequences of the reduced groundwater levels were considered
significant, as such declines had the potential to reduce water availability to crucially low levels for
both aquatic life in wetlands and riverine ecosystems. Furthermore, the prolonged dryness could
eventually result in complete alteration/disappearance of short-rooted plant populations.
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Brouyere et al. (2004) focused on the impact of climate change on the hydrological cycle in the
Geer Basin in Belgium. Belgium has a similar climate to Australia, where direct percolation of
rainfall occurs in the recharge period and slows when soil moisture deficits appear during the dryer
months of the year. In such climates, the affects of climate change usually mean there is an increase
in winter rainfall, albeit, the recharge season is usually shorter. The impact of climate change on
groundwater levels in the Geer Basin did not cause a seasonal fluctuation of groundwater levels;
instead the impact on groundwater levels was a ‘monotonic’ decrease with time. This was
considered the result of the thick unsaturated zone that smoothed any seasonal fluctuations.
Kuo-Chin Hsu et al. (2007) used numerical modelling to investigate the response of the
groundwater systems of the Pintung Plain in southwestern Taiwan, to climate change. In this
region, the steep topographic relief means that most of the precipitation becomes runoff and drains
to the ocean in a short time. The impacts of climate change indicated that both the amount of
annual precipitation and the number of days of precipitation decreased under the climate change
modelling scenario.
4.3.1.2.
Recharge via Irrigation Returns
Ficklin et al. (2010) considered the sensitivity of groundwater recharge under irrigated agriculture
to changes in climate, CO 2 concentrations and canopy structure, in the semi-arid Central Valley of
California, using Hydrus 1D numerical modelling. It was noted that in semi-arid regions, accurate
estimates of recharge and evapotranspiration are important for management of scarce water
resources.
The following conclusions were made from the modelling results;



Increased daily temperature led to increased evapotranspiration, resulting in an increased use
of irrigation water that was potentially available for groundwater recharge;
Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration increased crop water use efficiency, leading to
decreased evapotranspiration rates and a reduction in the amount of water needed for
irrigation; and
Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration increased plant growth rates resulting in more
irrigation needed earlier in the season.
Although the increase in atomospheric CO2 concentrations leads to both a decrease and an increase
in irrigation water, the overall impact is a decline in groundwater recharge. Ficklin et al. (2010)
concluded that the effect of decreased evapotranspiration from increased water use efficiency may
have a greater effect on groundwater recharge than the increase in irrigation water from increased
plant growth.
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4.3.1.3.
River Leakage
Allen et al. (2004) modelled the sensitivity of the Grand Forks aquifer in south-central British
Columbia, to changes in recharge and river stage to climate change scenarios for the region.
The Grand Forks aquifer is a highly productive alluvial aquifer situated in a bedrock valley,
approximately 4 km wide near its centre and narrower at both ends. The area is characterised by a
semi-arid climate. The results of the modelling indicated that the variations in recharge to the
aquifer have a much smaller impact on the groundwater system than changes in river-stage
elevation of the rivers that flow through the valley.
Annual recharge to the narrow alluvial aquifer is limited and the simulations of high and low
recharge showed there was little impact on changes to hydraulic head. However, an assessment of
changes in river-stage elevation provided an insight into the processes that control aquifer recharge
and the seasonal availability of groundwater in the valley. The aquifer was highly sensitive to
changes in river stage. For the scenario of 50 % higher than flood conditions, the watertable
averaged 3.5 m higher than current levels, for the scenario of 50 % lower than baseflow conditions;
the watertable was 2.1 m lower than the current levels.
The results are entirely consistent with what is expected of a narrow alluvial valley aquifer situated
in a bedrock valley, with river stage providing the dominant control on aquifer water levels.
4.3.1.4.
Evapotranspiration
Bouraoui et al. (1999, cited in Woldeamlak et al., 2000) reported that the substantial reduction in
groundwater recharge to an aquifer in Grenoble (France) was almost entirely attributed to the
increase in evapotranspiration during the recharge season under CO 2 doubling scenarios.
4.3.1.5.
Discharge to Streams
The impact of reduced groundwater recharge and increased evapotranspiration under a dry climate
change scenario, is reflected by a reduction in groundwater discharge and lower groundwater
levels. Beare & Heaney (2002) noted that a substantial delay is likely to occur before the reduction
in recharge is fully reflected in a reduction in groundwater discharge. The length of this delay will
depend on the hydrological characteristics of the groundwater flow system.
4.3.1.6.
Groundwater pumping
Woldeamlak et al. (2007) predicted that the effects of climate change and in particular summer
dryness, would lead to an adjustment of irrigation requirements that would ultimately lead to more
groundwater pumping.
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Moustadraf et al. (2008) looked at an aquifer in a semi-arid region of Morocco. Numerical
modelling of the aquifer showed that the groundwater resources of this system were less sensitive
to variations in precipitation and that the severe degradation of the aquifer was in fact related to
intensive pumping during the periods of drought. This pumping induced seawater intrusion into the
aquifer and consequently wells were abandoned due to salt water contamination.
4.3.2.
4.3.2.1.
Indirect impacts on water balance
Agricultural water management
The indirect implications of climate change were recognised by Ficklin et al. (2010) in terms of the
response by resource managers and also the response by irrigators.
In terms of resource management, changes to water allocation to meet farmer’s needs were
predicted, given that a shift in irrigation timing due to changes in plant growth and a decrease in
evapotranspiration could occur.
In terms of the irrigators, it is likely that the planting regime could be altered to account for the
increase in plant growth rates (given that crops grow faster under higher average daily
temperatures). Although faster crop development may occur and result in a reduced growing season
water demand, it is likely that multiple cropping will occur and hence the annual water demand
may increase.
The Beare & Heaney (2002) study of the Murray-Darling Basin also discussed the likely indirect
impact of climate change associated with improved water use efficiency, coupled with reduced
water availability. They found that a reduction in the volume of irrigation excess water to recharge
the groundwater system was likely, given a reduction in surface water runoff, groundwater
discharge and drainage to the river.
4.4.
Potential impacts to groundwater quality in Murray-Darling Basin
4.4.1.
Current groundwater quality issues
The Bureau of Rural Sciences produced a series of groundwater quality assessments from
catchments across Australia, including assessments of the alluvial aquifers in the Border Rivers
Catchment (Qld/NSW), the Upper Shepparton Formation aquifers in the Cobram Region
(Victoria), the Nagambie-Mangalore and Kyabram-Tongala areas in the Goulburn Catchment
(Victoria) and the shallow aquifers in the Murray Region (NSW).
This next section is largely based on the findings of these groundwater quality assessments.
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4.4.1.1.
Sodic Soils
Sodic soils occur in arid to semi-arid regions and are characterized by a high concentration of
sodium in their cation exchange complex. Sodic soils are structurally unstable, exhibiting poor
physical and chemical properties, which impede water infiltration, water availability, and
ultimately plant growth.
The western and the south-central areas of the Border Rivers Catchment are characterised by high
and very high sodium hazard (Please et al., 2000). In the south-central area, the high sodium is
attributed to upward migration of sodium-rich waters along the Peel Fault Zone.
Salinisation and soil sodicity was also recognised as a significant management issue for the Upper
Shepparton Formation aquifers in the Cobram region (Ivkovic, 2001). More than one third of the
samples collected indicated a high to very high sodium hazard in this area.
The medium Sodium Adsorption Ratio (i.e. the suitability of water for use in agricultural irrigation)
in the Nagambie-Mangalore region was 14.2. Eleven of the sixteen samples indicated very high
sodium concentrations that were considered unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes.
In the shallow aquifers of the Murray region, 85 % of samples indicated a very high sodium hazard.
4.4.1.2.
Trace Metals
High metal concentrations, well above ANZECC Irrigation Water Guidelines were identified in the
Border Rivers Alluvium Catchment. High concentrations were also detected in the Murray region,
around Cobram and in the Goulburn Catchment. The correlation between high salinity groundwater
and high trace metal concentrations was linked to the effects of evaporation increasing the
concentration of these elements, in all of these areas.
4.4.1.3.
Herbicides
Pesticides were detected in 22 % of the shallow groundwater samples from the Kyabram-Tongala
study area. The compounds detected were all herbicides and the contamination was linked to the
application of herbicides on irrigated dairy pastures and in the horticulture industry (Watkins et al.,
1999). Herbicides were also detected in 48 % of groundwater samples in the upper Shepparton
aquifer in the Cobram region. In both of these cases the contamination of the shallow aquifers via
pesticides, was considered to be fast and recent. This was indicated by the absence of degradation
products.
4.4.1.4.
Microbiota
Faecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB) was recovered from 22 % of groundwater samples in the KyabramTongala region. The FIB was related to herds of dairy cattle grazing on irrigated pastures. FIB was
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also recovered from 19 % of samples in the Cobram region and was associated with septic tank
effluent and livestock faeces.
4.4.1.5.
Dryland Salinty
Dryland salinity is one of Australia’s most serious environmental and resource issues. Most
agricultural land in Australia is characterised by naturally high levels of salt in the subsurface. Prior
to European settlement, groundwater levels in Australia were in a long-term equilibrium. However,
the land has since been cleared of the perennial vegetation in agricultural regions and replaced with
annual crop and pasture species that allow more rainfall to remain unused by the plants and to enter
the groundwater (Walker et al., 1999).
Two million hectares of agricultural land is affected by shallow watertables, with the most serious
problems occurring in Western Australia and to a lesser extent, South Australia and Victoria. In
NSW, dryland salinity is a major natural resource management issue, however most areas of the
upland Murray-Darling Basin appear to be in a new hydrological equilibrium and the future trends
estimated in the 1999 Salinity Audit have been substantially reduced (DECC, 2009).
4.4.2.
4.4.2.1.
Potential climate change impacts
Dryland Salinity
There are two potential impacts of climate change on dryland salinity (John et al., 2005);
1) A reduction in rainfall may result in less groundwater recharge and consequently less dryland
salinity risk and water logging
2) If reduced winter rainfall is offset by increased summer rainfall, dryland salinisation may
actually increase
In the Adelaide Mount Lofty Ranges, the reduced groundwater recharge under climate change
conditions is recognised to potentially decrease the salinity risk, due to reduced watertable
elevations. However, it was recognised that the poor water use in agricultural fields could
exacerbate recharge (AMLR NRM Board, 2007).
The simulation modelling conducted by Beare & Heaney (2002) indicated that some parts of the
Murray-Darling Basin would be affected by high watertables. High watertables have the ability to
reduce agricultural yields, damage transport, communication and other infrastructure through water
logging and by depositing salt in the landscape (i.e. dryland salinity). The extent of the damage of
the high water tables is highly dependent on the salinity of groundwater being mobilised into the
landscape.
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4.4.2.2.
Pollutants
In the event of an increase in rainfall intensity, pollutants (i.e. high concentrations of sodium, trace
metals, herbicides and microbiota) will be increasingly washed from soils to water bodies and
where recharge to aquifers occurs via these surface water bodies, groundwater quality is likely to
decline. Furthermore, elevated watertables could have negative consequences on crops and natural
vegetation in that area.
Where recharge is projected to decrease, water quality may again decline, due to lower dilution.
4.4.2.3.
Surface Water Quality
The Lower reaches of the Murray River have been analysed in terms of the potential impacts of
climate change on Lower Murray floodplain health (Connor et al., 2010). There is a significant
salinity issue in the Lower Murray region because of the highly saline groundwater that is
hydraulically connected to the river. Connor et al. (2010) found that the reduction in precipitation
and the local adaptation of irrigators to increased water demand due to climate change impacts,
may have a positive outcome in this area. The positive impact relates to the lower watertable
elevation and subsequent lower volume of groundwater discharge to the floodplain. However it
should be noted that although there is less risk to the floodplain due to lower watertable elevations,
the reduced river flows predicted for climate change scenarios means that the inundation of the
floodplain required to maintain ecological health, is unlikely to be met.
Beare & Heaney (2002) noted that in some parts of the Murray-Darling Basin, a decline in
discharge of saline groundwater does not provide a benefit to stream salinity, as the reduction in
surface water flows that are available to dilute the existing salt loads, is too great.
In other parts of the Basin - in particular, the irrigation areas- salinity benefits were recognised.
Irrigation areas are characterised by saturated soil profiles, which means that a change in recharge
leads to a reduction in discharge relatively quickly. In these areas salinity trends tend to increase
only slightly or even decline as the volume of irrigation water applied reduces and this reduction is
quickly translated into a reduction in groundwater discharge. In other words, in such areas the
impact of reduced surface water flows are offset by reduced groundwater discharge, generating
water quality benefits in the Murray River.
4.5.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The implications of climate change on groundwater resources are likely to be delayed and subdued
relative to the impacts on surface water resources, given that groundwater systems are more
susceptible to long-term trends and in some cases have a large volume of water in store to act as a
buffer to such changes.
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Groundwater pollutant issues (i.e. high concentrations of sodium, trace metals, FBIs etc) have been
identified in some areas of the Murray-Darling Basin, albeit these issues tend to occur on a local
scale and have not impeded the use of groundwater for agriculture use, to date. The impacts of
climate change on these types of groundwater quality issues are likely to be negative. In the case of
increased precipitation, the increased runoff is likely to concentrate pollutants in groundwater. If
precipitation decreases, the lower dilution may again, lead to an increase in pollutant concentration.
Counter this, though, is that under drier climates the depth to watertable will increase and the
potential to pollute shallow groundwater will also decrease. Thicker unsaturated zones will also act
to ameliorate any potential pollution. However, overall, even at their worst, these impacts are likely
to be small.
The potential for climate change impacts to result in salt water intrusion and subsequent
groundwater quality deterioration is recognised in various studies of climate change around the
world (Kuo-Chin Hsu et al., 2007; Moustadraf et al., 2008). The risk of this impact is negligible in
terms of the Murray-Darling-Basin, as it is primarily an inland basin and the only part of the Basin
that is characterised by coastal aquifer systems, is where the Murray River meets the Southern
Ocean in South Australia.
The most significant impacts of climate change on groundwater quality in the Murray-Darling
Basin are the impacts on dryland salinity and river salinity.
Dryland salinity is one of Australia’s biggest groundwater quality threats and climate change has
the potential to influence one of the primary factors in its generation; watertable elevation. The
impact of climate change on dryland salinity will vary across the basin and will depend on the net
effect of changes in the hydrological cycle, the response time of the groundwater flow system and
the rate of recharge in each catchment (Beare & Heaney, 2002).
Rising river salinity is a major water quality issue in the Murray-Darling Basin, particularly in the
areas of the Victorian Mallee and South Australian Riverland. In these areas groundwater table
elevations are critical, as higher groundwater levels, correspond to more saline groundwater
discharge to the river. Climate change implications are likely to have the greatest impacts in this
area, however the impacts may vary as the groundwater system adjusts to the altered hydrologic
regime. In the short-term, there will be little response in the groundwater levels due to reduced
precipitation and the likely impact of climate change will be an overall decline in surface water
quality, due to the immediate reduction in surface water runoff and the less water available to dilute
existing levels of saline groundwater discharge.
In the longer term however, the implications of climate change could be positive. Reduced
precipitation and increased evapotranspiration could lead to the lowering of watertables and a
reduction in saline groundwater discharge to rivers.
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5.
Water Quality in the Murray-Darling Basin
The environmental values (e.g. irrigation, drinking water, recreation, aquatic ecosystems, etc.) of
the water resources in the Murray-Darling Basin are all strongly dependent on good water quality.
The primary drivers of water quality throughout the basin are catchment hydrology and land use.
This section provides a general summary of water quality issues in the basin as highlighted through
a general literature search and specialist workshop, and then provides a region-by-region summary
of the water quality dependent values, their threats and general trends.
5.1.
Workshop
On the 17th May 2010, Sinclair Knight Merz hosted a workshop for external specialists to discuss
current and future water quality issues in the MDB Murray-Darling Basin (MDB). Fifteen water
quality specialists familiar with the MDB attended a full day workshop in Canberra (Table 1-1).

Table 5-1 Invited participants to the workshop
ATTENDEES
APOLOGIES
Name
Organisation
Name
Organisation
Richard Cresswell
CSIRO
Richard Davis
NWC
Klaus Koop
DECCW
Phil Cole
MDBA
Tony Jakeman
ICAM
Michael Wilson
MDBA
Mike Grace
Monash Uni
Alastair Buchan
MDBA
Tim Stubbs
Wentworth Group
Pat Feehan
Feehan Consulting
Don Bursill
Urban Water Innovations
Barry Hart
Water Science
Brian Bycroft
MDBA
Phil Price
LWA
Alice Shields
MDBA
Richard Bush
SCU
Kris Kleeman
MDBA
Bill Maher
Uni of Canberra
Jason Alexandra
MDBA
Mathew Maliel
MDBA
Ray Evans
SKM
Rai Kookana
CSIRO
Tony Church
SKM
Darren Baldwin
MDFRC
Simon Treadwell
SKM
John Williams
NSW NRC
Nick Schofield
SKM
Brian Lawrence
MDBA
Bonnie Atkinson
SKM
The discussion of the workshop centred on current and emerging water quality issues in the
northern and southern parts of the basin. It then focussed specifically on potential future water
quality issues with reference to dry extreme and wet extreme future climate change scenarios.
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5.2.
Current water quality issues
The water quality in the Basin is declining with rising salinity, high nutrient and suspended
sediment loads, cold water pollution and low dissolved oxygen levels.
Rising salinity is one of the major issues facing the Murray-Darling Basin (Chartres et al., 2003).
Salinity levels have risen in almost all of the Basin’s rivers, particularly in the upland catchments in
NSW (Chartres et al., 2003). Salinity levels increase along the River Murray, however, water
diversion for irrigation and salt interception schemes have been successful recently in reducing salt
loads in the basin overall.
High nutrient and suspended solids loads are widespread stressors on the environmental health of
waterways in the entire Murray-Darling Basin (NLWR, 2001). The only reaches where there are
no major water quality effects were in the upper parts of the catchments and the western
Queensland part of the Murray-Darling Basin (NLWR, 2001). Most of the liberated sediment loads
have been generated in the upland and midslope areas, but the impact is seen in lowland rivers,
weir pools and reservoirs where the sediment is stored and high nutrients lead to algal blooms.
Algal blooms have always been present in the river system and blooms are a natural phenomena. In
1878 the blue-green algae, Nodularia spumigena, bloomed in Lake Alexandrina causing the death
of animals that drank the water. Blooms of blue-green algae in the River Murray in South Australia
have been recorded intermittently since records began in 1947. In the Darling River in 1991, a toxic
bloom of blue-green algae occurred over a distance of 1000 km and caused the New South Wales
government to declare a state of emergency. During recent very low flow periods, blooms are
probably getting more intense and possibly becoming more frequent due to reduced flows and high
nutrient inputs. The decay of algal blooms are associated with low dissolved oxygen levels, which
can have catastrophic ecological effects.
Cold water releases from bottom water of large dams also remains a significant problem hindering
the recovery of native fish populations in the Murray-Darling Basin (Boys et al., 2009). For
example, in the Macquarie River during summer, when ambient water temperatures average around
25°C, the temperature of water in the river downstream of Burrendong Dam varies around 13°C
(Astles et al., 2003). These suppressed temperatures persist for over 300 km downstream. Other
basin-examples of cold water pollution are downstream of Lake Eildon in the Goulburn Basin, and
the Keepit Dam in the Namoi Basin. It has been estimated that up to 3000 km of river channel in
the Basin is affected by cold water pollution (Gehrke et al., 2003).
A summary of the current water quality issues in the north and southern parts of the basin is
provided below under the categories of physical, chemical and biological parameters.
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5.2.1.
Northern Basin
The northern basin was loosely defined as those regions north of the Lachlan River region, which
were categorised on the basis of the seasonality of rainfall. It includes those rivers in southern
Queensland and northern New South Wales. The northern basin is less regulated than the southern
part of the basin. The current water quality issues identified in the workshop for the northern part
of the basin are related to anthropogenic activities in the regions (Table 5-2).

Table 5-2 Physical, chemical and biological water quality issues in the Northern Basin
Physical
pH
Although highly localised, patches of acid sulfate soils (ASS) and acid mine drainage
have been noted in the northern basin. The Murray-Darling Basin generally has a low
probability of occurrence of ASS. However, there are patches of high probability in the
lower Murray region.
Water
temperature
Cold-water pollution is an issue in rivers downstream of major storages. There have been
noted impacts on recreation as well as native fish and macroinvertebrates.
Turbidity/Total
Suspended Solids
Turbidity and high suspended solids loads are natural water quality characteristic of the
northern basin due to the intense nature of rainfall. Loads have increased recently due to
stream bank collapse (e.g. Namoi catchment), exacerbated by extended low flows and
changes to the flow regime. High turbidity loads are related to high nutrient and
pesticides loads, particularly high phosphorus loads in the upper Namoi. There is a
general trend of low turbidity/low nutrients in the eastern basin tending towards high
turbidity/high nutrients on the western side of the basin. Salinity causes a notable decline
in turbidity and the resultant rise in algal growth because of the improved light regime.
Chemical
Electrical
conductivity
Salinity is an issue in central-western NSW, particularly in the Condamine, Namoi and
Border Rivers regions. The disposal of saline water from coal seam gas production is an
emerging issue, which may affect the salinity of rivers in involved areas.
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is critical for maintaining refuge pools in the ephemeral rivers in the
northern basin. Algal blooms and large accumulations of organic matter in wetlands and
channel margins present a risk for low dissolved oxygen effects.
Nutrients
High nutrient loads are related to high turbidity loads. The tablelands and slopes in
reasonable water quality condition, but areas on tertiary basalt are high in P (e.g. Pell,
Namoi). Reservoirs in northern tablelands are subject to intense blue green algal blooms
driven by naturally high phosphorus in some catchments.
Dissolved organic
carbon/Biological
oxygen demand
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations are very high (4.5 - 15 mg/L) compared
to overseas equivalents (1.5 - 5.0 mg/L). However, the DOC is also naturally highly
refractive due to the nature of the vegetation (i.e. Eucalyptus sp.). DOC is a key driver of
drinking water treatment requirements. It can increase due to fires and blackwater events
in connected wetlands.
Pesticides
Pesticides are in high concentrations in regions with extensive cropping, particularly
cotton farming in the north-western parts of the basin.
Other:
Heavy metals, such as arsenic, iron and manganese are at high levels in groundwater,
which restrict the water usage. Sodium is also high in areas of the basin linked to the
Great Artesian Basin.
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Biological
Algal counts
Algal blooms are a recurring issue in the basin. They are linked primarily to declining flow
and increasing nutrient loads and water clarity.
Emerging water
quality issues





5.2.2.
Increasing river salinity due to reduced surface water inflows and rising groundwater
salinity;
Low dissolved oxygen levels under base flow and increasing incidence of
stratification (thermal &/or saline);
High nutrients and contaminants (including Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs))
from an increasing proportion of stormwater, septic tank leakage or sewage
treatment plant effluent in rivers;
Southerly movement of toxic blue green algal species Nodularia; and
The spread of thermally tolerant protozoans into South Australia’s water supply that
can cause human disease.
Southern Basin
The southern basin included the regions south of and including the Lachlan River region. The River
Murray is also categorised into the southern basin. These regions are situated in Victoria, Southern
NSW and into South Australia. The southern basin is highly regulated compared to the northern
basin. The current water quality issues identified at the workshop for the southern part of the basin
are related to anthropogenic activities and the high level of flow regulation in these regions (Table
5-2).

Table 5-3 Physical, chemical and biological water quality issues in the Southern Basin
Physical
pH
The Parilla sands groundwater aquifer in northern Victoria and South Australia is
naturally acidic. It is buffered when it enters the rivers, but where it is expressed at the
surface-groundwater interface it is very acidic. Although highly localised, patches of acid
sulfate soils (ASS) and acid mine drainage have been noted in the southern Basin. The
Murray-Darling Basin generally has a low probability of occurrence of ASS. However,
there are patches of high probability in the lower Murray region. Several wetlands along
the River Murray have been disconnected during the recent drought, which has exposed
acid sulfate soils. This presents a risk of acidity and heavy metals if the wetlands are
flushed.
Water
temperature
Cold-water pollution is an issue in rivers downstream of major storages that receive
cooler water from snow melt. There have been noted impacts on recreation as well as
native fish and macroinvertebrates, particularly in the Goulburn system downstream of
Lake Eildon. There have also been instances of warm river pollution from environmental
flow releases into dry river beds.
Turbidity/Total
Suspended Solids
Turbidity is less of an issue in the southern basin than the northern basin, however,
turbidity levels rise in response to natural and anthropogenic activities in the regions.
Extremely high turbidity and organic matter loads were experienced in the Ovens region
in response to heavy rainfall post the alpine bushfires in 2002/03. There has also been
sand dumping in the lower Murray caused by people putting sand on clay banks to
increase ease of access for recreation.
Chemical
Electrical
conductivity
Rising salinity is an issue in the southern basin predominately in wet periods when
groundwater levels rise and interact more strongly with the river. EC levels decline during
dry years. Saline stratification of deep pools occurs in the Campaspe and Wimmera
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Regions.
Dissolved oxygen
Algal blooms and large accumulations of organic matter in wetlands and channel margins
present a risk for low DO effects. These DO issues manifest in weir pools and
ephemeral/ low flow streams, but not in the large regulated rivers.
Nutrients
Nutrient levels in the southern basin are high. These high levels are attributed to
agricultural activities in the catchment, such as application of fertilisers and high animal
stocking rates. High nutrients lead to prolific plant growth and algal blooms, which occur
in slow flowing or still water areas, such as weir pools and reservoirs. Sewage treatment
plant effluent is also a source of nutrients in rivers that flow through urban areas. Large
spikes in nutrient loads have followed major bushfires in the region, i.e. 2003 Canberra
fires and 2002/03 Victorian Alpine bushfires. The nutrients are liberated from erosion,
high organic matter loads, and atmospheric fall out (Water Studies Centre Study on
Tambo/Mitta Mitta Rivers post 2002/03 Bushfires).
Dissolved organic
carbon/Biological
oxygen demand
Blackwater events, caused by high organic matter loads, have increased in frequency
and severity in the Loddon River and also in wetlands connected to the River Murray
(e.g. Barmah-Millewa Forest and Edward-Wakool System) from increased regulation, in
particular the lack of overbank flows. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations are
very high (4.5 - 15 mg/L) compared to overseas equivalents (1.5 - 5.0 mg/L). However,
the DOC is also naturally highly refractive due to the nature of the vegetation (i.e.
Eucalyptus sp.). DOC is a key driver of drinking water treatment requirements.
Pesticides
Localised accumulation of pesticides has been noted in the sediments of weir pools,
particularly in South Australia.
Other:
Iron and manganese levels have been high in reservoirs in the southern basin. Heavy
metals, endocrine disrupting chemicals and pharmaceuticals from STPs and intensive
animal industries are may also be impacting on aquatic ecosystems.
Biological
Algal counts
Algal blooms are a recurring issue in the basin. They are linked primarily to declining flow
and increasing nutrient loads and water clarity. Blue green algal blooms in weir pools
along the River Murray are increasing in frequency and duration. The algal species
composition has also changed towards a more thermally-tolerant and toxic species
(Cylindrospermopsis sp.), previously only known to occur in the northern basin.
Emerging water
quality issues






Increased incidence of toxic algal bloom species, Cylindrospermopsis sp.
Irrigation modernisation will result in less outfalls and less watering of wetlands
through channel leakage;
Increasing river salinity due to reduced surface water inflows and rising groundwater
salinity;
Artificial flow regimes due to heavy regulation. Mismanagement of environmental
flow deliveries may cause blackwater events, spikes in salinity and thermal pollution
(hot and cold).
Low dissolved oxygen levels under base flow and increasing incidence of
stratification thermally tolerant protozoans into South Australia’s water supply that
can cause human disease. (thermal &/or saline);
High nutrients and contaminants (including Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs))
from an increasing proportion of stormwater, septic tank leakage or sewage
treatment plant effluent in rivers;
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5.3.
Future water quality issues
The afternoon workshop discussion focussed on potential future water quality issues relating to wet
extreme and dry extreme 2030 future climate scenarios in the Murray-Darling Basin. These
scenarios were based on the dry and wet extreme 2030 scenarios modelled by the CSIRO
sustainable yields project (CSIRO, 2008) 1, which predicted the changes in water availability in
each region (Table 3-1).
5.3.1.
General overview
Water allocations and land management will play a vital role in determining the health of
waterways in the MDB into the future. This is more the case in the southern basin, which is a
heavily regulated system. Under a dry extreme 2030 scenario, where water becomes scarce, water
delivery priorities and land management may shift towards protecting critical human needs as
opposed to the environment in the southern basin. The northern basin is less regulated, however,
the environment, particularly in the north-western ephemeral zones is harsh and vulnerable to
climate change. It is expected that the natural catchment hydrology regime will be amplified under
climate change, increasing the intense nature of rainfall generating erosion, and extending the
periods of no flow putting pressure on the survival of biota in refuge pools. Regardless, the future
water quality issues relating to a dry and wet scenario are expected to be relatively the same
between the northern and southern MDB. A summary is presented in Table 3-2.

Table 5-4 Potential water quality issues in the MDB under the wet and dry extreme 2030
climate change scenarios
Parameter
Wet
Dry
Physical
pH
-
-
Water Temperature
-
A very minor rise in alkalinity due
to higher dissolved CO 2 ,
depending on the buffering
capacity of the natural organic
matter present. Low EC systems
(uplands) are more vulnerable
because of their lower buffering
capacity.
Acid sulfate soils will be less of an
issue because of the more stable
wet weather conditions.
-
Small increase in response to air
temperature rise, but will be
compensated by larger body of
water to heat/cool in higher flow
-
-
-
A minor rise in alkalinity due to higher
dissolved CO2, depending on the
buffering capacity of the natural organic
matter present. Low EC systems
(uplands) are more vulnerable because
of their lower buffering capacity.
Drying of wetlands and river channels
may expose ASS in localised areas,
increasing the risk of acidity. The hot
spots include the lower Condamine in
north and the Edward/Wakool,
Wimmera and lower lakes South).
Large increase in response to air
temperature rise, particularly during
‘heat-wave’ conditions.
Diurnal variations in water temperature
1
CSIRO (2008) Water availability in the Murray-Darling Basin. . (ed^(eds, pp. 67pp. A report to the Australian
Government from the CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project, CSIRO, Australia.
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Parameter
Wet
Dry
conditions.
-
Turbidity
-
More frequent large rainfall events
could generate erosion, leading to
increased turbidity levels.
Runoff from diffuse sources, such
as farms, roads, pavements and
gardens will increase turbidity.
-
-
will become more extreme due to
smaller water mass to heat/cool in low
flow conditions.
Thermal stratification of reservoirs will
occur earlier in the season, and persist
longer. Disconnected or deep pools in
slow-flowing rivers may thermally
stratify.
Cold-water pollution and warm-water
pollution in regulated systems.
Turbidity levels will be lower overall.
Altered soil properties from intensive
drying, followed by episodic rainfall
events may generate increased erosion,
and also increase storm-water
contaminants loads in urban areas.
Water clarity will be higher, leading to
an increase in algal blooms in nutrient
enriched systems.
Bushfires, closely following by intense
rainfall events, deliver high suspended
solids loads.
Chemical
Salinity
-
-
-
Dissolved oxygen
-
Groundwater levels will rise and
interact with surface systems
causing saline groundwater
intrusions.
However, higher surface runoff will
dilute groundwater inputs, and
therefore the salinity will depend on
the relative proportions of
groundwater and surface water in
rivers.
Extreme recharge events may
move saline groundwater and
increase the potential for dryland
salinity.
Minor decrease with reduced
solubility from the rise in water
temperature, but will be mitigated
by re-aeration from higher flows.
-
-
-
-
Nutrients
-
Particle bound phosphorus loads
will increase with erosion
associated with heavy rainfall
-
Groundwater levels will drop and there
will be less saline intrusions into surface
systems.
However, where there is groundwater
interaction, the groundwater may be a
higher proportion of the river flows due
to lower surface runoff.
Salinity will rise in groundwater fed,
disconnected refuge pools, which may
exceed the tolerance levels of waterdependent biota.
Disconnected or deep pools in slowflowing rivers may salt-stratify.
Decrease with reduced solubility from
the rise in water temperature and slower
flowing/still water conditions
The range in diurnal variations will be
more extreme due to increased primary
productivity and community respiration
rates with increasing temperatures.
Lower flows and increased stratification
(thermal or saline) will favour algal
blooms and nuisance plant growth, with
high oxygen drawdown during the night
and also from algal/plant
decomposition.
Nutrient loads will generally be lower,
due to lower runoff. However, episodic
high rainfall events may deliver pulses
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Parameter
Wet
-
Dry
events.
Irrigation drainage from agricultural
areas will increase nutrients loads
in the waterways.
Higher loads of nutrients entering
into water storages, causing
eutrophication and algal blooms.
-
-
-
Organic Carbon
-
Leaf litter entrained from the
floodplain and channel margins
during high flows will increase
dissolved and particulate organic
carbon loads.
-
-
Pesticides
-
-
of nutrients that may drive
eutrophication.
Atmospheric fixation of nitrogen
depends on thunderstorm
intensity/frequency, but probably a small
contribution in agricultural catchments
Sewage treatment plant effluent
becomes a higher proportion of the
stream flow, thereby increasing nutrient
concentrations.
Bushfires, closely following by intense
rainfall events, deliver high loads of
nutrients.
High litter fall into channel from droughtstressed vegetation, such as red river
gums.
High organic loads multiply microbial
community numbers, thereby increasing
processing rates and diurnal variability
in DO and pH.
Bushfires, closely following by intense
rainfall events, deliver high loads of
organic carbon.
More frequent large rainfall events
could generate erosion in
agricultural areas, leading to
pesticide liberation.
Runoff from diffuse sources, such
as cropping and gardens will
increase pesticide loads.
-
Pesticide concentrations increase from
a lack of diluting surface flows in
agricultural systems
Nutrient loads will increase;
however, water clarity from higher
turbidity and higher flows in rivers
and storages will reduce the
frequency and duration of algal
blooms.
-
Algal blooms will increase in frequency
and duration due to still and/or slowing
flowing conditions in reservoirs, rivers,
disconnected pools and wetlands.
Higher water clarity means light will
penetrate deeper into the water column
stimulating growth of algae and
nuisance aquatic plants.
Lower dissolved oxygen levels in lower
layers of thermally or salt-stratified
water bodies will release phosphorus,
fuelling toxic blue-green algal blooms.
Biological
Algae
-
-
-
Pathogens
-
-
Increase loads due to sewer
exfiltration from overloaded pipes
in urban areas and seepage from
septic tanks
Runoff from diffuse sources, such
as farms, roads, pavements and
gardens will increase pathogen
loads.
-
Sewage treatment plant effluent, septic
tank seepage and stormwater will
constitute a higher proportion of river
flows, which will increase pathogen
concentrations.
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5.4.
Region by Region
The MDB has been divided into 17 regions for this project (Figure 5-1). The regions are the major
tributaries in the MDB and reflect the regions used in CSIRO (2008l) as well as existing river
system models and water sharing plan areas.

Figure 5-1 MDB regions after (CSIRO, 2008l)
5.4.1.
5.4.1.1.
Barwon-Darling
Overview
The Barwon-Darling Region is in northwestern New South Wales and comprises 13 % of the
Murray Darling Basin (CSIRO, 2008a). This region is based around the Barwon, which changes
name to the Darling River. The river flows south-west from Collarenebri in the north-east to
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Wilcannia in the south-west. Generated runoff in this region is very low compared with the high
inflows it receives from its tributaries in the northern part of the basin, including the MacquarieCastlereagh, Namoi, Gwydir, Border Rivers and Condamine-Balonne River regions. The BarwonDarling plays an important role in connecting the northern and southern regions in the Basin.
The predominant land-use in the region is dryland pasture for beef and sheep (CSIRO, 2008a).
Almost one-third of the land area remains as native vegetation, including woodlands, forests,
chenopod shrublands and native pastures.
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the BarwonDarling Region (CSIRO, 2008a). Future development of farm dams in the region is expected to
reduce runoff by less than 0.5 % by 2030. Groundwater extraction is expected to grow to 240
GL/year, from 10 GL/year, to be over 50 % of the average total water use in the region (CSIRO,
2008a). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by 8% and increase
surface water use by 2 % (CSIRO, 2008a).
5.4.1.2.
Values
The Barwon-Darling River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. Over half of the predicted native species were
not found. However, native fish were abundant and the intrusion of alien species was moderate
compared to other valleys (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community declined in condition from
moderate/good in the upper zone to poor in the lower and middle zone. The communities at
most sites were impoverished and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall ecosystem health in the Barwon–Darling river is ‘poor’ (Davies et
al., 2008).
Nationally important wetlands: Talyawalka Anabranch and its distributary Teryawynia Creek
receives water from the Darling River near Wilcannia and returns water in the Lower Darling
River downstream of Menindee. This large wetland are consists of a series of lakes, which
provide habitat for waterbirds and Black Box and River Red Gum vegetation communities
(CSIRO, 2008a). These lakes also have aboriginal heritage values. Current and future
developments in the Barwon-Darling Catchment, coupled with climate change, will affect the
frequency and duration of important flows to the Talyawalka system.
Water Supply
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

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 3% of the surface water diverted for irrigation in the
MDB.
Stock and domestic: There are no major public water storages in the region, other than lowlevel weirs to provide domestic and stock supply during zero-flow periods (CSIRO,
2008a;Davies et al., 2008). There are 15 such weirs on the Darling upstream of Menindee,
which causes ‘ponding’ of up to 640 km of the river. Most diversions are opportunistic
harvesting of high flows.
Tourism

The Darling River is a major drawcard for tourist. The ‘Darling River Run’ is a 700 km tourist
route that follows the river from Bourke to Wentworth and attracts a steady stream of visitors
each year (Western CMA, 2010).
5.4.1.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Barwon-Darling River is under threat from (Western CMA,
2010):

Diversions of water for irrigation, industrial and domestic uses;

Uncontrolled stock access fouling water with waste and causing riverbed erosion;

Polluted run-off from towns;

Salinity and blue-green algae; and

High turbidity and sedimentation.
5.4.1.4.
Water quality summary
Major water quality issues for the Barwon-Darling River are high levels of turbidity, nutrients and
salinity, as well as the occurrence of algal blooms and contamination with agricultural pesticides
(Western CMA, 2007). High salinity levels and blue-green algal blooms are most common during
cease to flow and low flow periods. This has restricted water use for domestic, stock and
recreational purposes (Western CMA, 2007). In November and December 1991, the world’s largest
recorded riverine algal bloom was recorded for 1000km along the Barwon-Darling River. It
extended from Wilcannia to Mungindi and a State of Emergency was declared in NSW.
The Barwon–Darling River receives the majority of its water from the tributary streams that form
that northern part of the MDB. The water quality depends largely on both the quality and quantity
of water flowing from these upstream sources (Western CMA, 2007).
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Salinity in the Barwon–Darling is highly variable and can range from 200 µS/cm to more than
3000 µS/cm (Western CMA, 2007). The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Mungindi are 257 and 323 µS/cm respectively. The EC levels increase
in dry periods (see Appendix A). A saline interception project a Jandra Station, 70 km north-east of
Louth, is a large scale groundwater pumping project that intercepts deep-channel saline inflows
entering the Darling River (Western CMA, 2010).
Total phosphorus and turbidity levels were consistently poor. Of particular significance was the
increasing trend in flow-adjusted turbidity levels identified in data from the site at Bourke,
suggesting that this township may be significantly affecting water quality. There has also be an
increase in agricultural activities, including cotton farming (DEWHA, 2009).
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 90th percentile in river flows
corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below summaries the
trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on this historical
analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water quality dependent
values.
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
Table 5-5 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Barwon
Darling Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Environmental
values (High)
Water Supply
values (Mod)
Recreational
Values (Mod)
Water Quality
Trajectory
-fish,
macroinvertebrates
-wetlands
-irrigation
-stock and
domestic
-primary contact
-secondary contact
-aesthetic values
Wet Extreme Risks
(Med)
↓Algal count
↓pH
↓Salinity
↑Turbidity
↑Total phosphorus
-Temperature
Extremely high
turbidity levels will
reduce primary
productivity levels,
resulting in less
food resource for
aquatic organisms.
Extremely high
turbidity levels may
increase drinking
water treatment
costs.
Extremely high
turbidity levels
make water
undesirable and
pose human health
risks from
associated
pathogens.
Dry Extreme Risks
(High)
↑Algal count
↑pH
↑Salinity
↓Turbidity
↓Total phosphorus
↑↓Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
Algal blooms and
decaying algal
blooms lead to
oxygen draw down,
with potentially
lethal effects on
aquatic organisms.
Increasing salinity
levels may go
beyond the
tolerance levels for
some species.
Algal toxins and
algal biomass may
cause water to be
unsuitable for stock
and domestic
drinking water, and
also clog
infrastructure for
irrigation.
Increasing salinity
levels also make
water unsuitable.
The human health,
odour and visual
impacts from algal
blooms in the river
will impact on
primary, secondary
and aesthetic
values.
Climate Scenario
5.4.2.
5.4.2.1.
Border Rivers
Overview
The Border Rivers region transcends southern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales. It
represents 4 % of the total area of the MDB (CSIRO, 2008b). This region consists of the headwater
streams, Macintyre Brook and Dumaresq River, that join the Macintyre River and later becomes
the Barwon River.
The dominant land use is broad-acre grazing on the tablelands and cropping (i.e. irrigated cotton
crops) on the slopes and plains (CSIRO, 2008b).
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the Border
Rivers Region (CSIRO, 2008a). Currently 34 % of surface water availability is diverted for use,
which has reduced the reliability of supply in the region and downstream. Groundwater
development near the Dumaresq River is expected to be unsustainable, reducing groundwater
levels and streamflow in the future (CSIRO, 2008a). Climate change is expected to reduce surface
water availability by 10 %, however surface water use is predicted to decline by 2 % (CSIRO,
2008a).
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5.4.2.2.
Values
The Border River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in moderate condition. Native fish were abundant and most of the
predicted native species occurred throughout the region. The intrusion of alien species was
moderate (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in moderate condition with the
lowland and slopes zones in better condition than the upland and montane zones. The
communities at most sites were depleted and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall ecosystem health in the Border Rivers is ‘moderate’ (Davies et al.,
2008).
Nationally important wetlands: The floodplain between Goondiwindi and Mungindi contain
the large anabranches and billabongs Morella Watercourse, Boobera Lagoon, Pungbougal
Lagoon. These areas are considered to be one of the most important Aboriginal places in
eastern Australia (CSIRO, 2008a). During floods, these areas provide large amounts of organic
carbon to the river ecosystem downstream to support ecosystem function.
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses approximately 4.4% of the surface water diverted for irrigation and
2 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. There are four major instream storages,
Coolmunda, Glenlyon, Pindara and Rangers Valley Dams, that enable irrigated agriculture on
the plains.
Stock and domestic: Household consumption comprises approximately 1% of the total water
consumption in the Border River region, and is typically groundwater.
5.4.2.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Border Rivers is under threat from (BRGCMA, 2007):



Overclearing and overgrazing of native vegetation causing erosion and increasing turbidity;
Excessive use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers increasing nutrients and contaminants in
waterways;
Weed infestations (instream and riparian) change organic matter sources and lower dissolved
oxygen;
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
Draining of wetlands; and

Reduced stream flow.
5.4.2.4.
Water quality summary
Water quality in the Border Rivers region is generally good, but is influenced by land use and
regulated river flows. Land use and agricultural practices have contributed to elevated nutrient,
pesticide, and sediment levels, and reduced river flows (McGloin, 2001). Water quality in the
catchment is classified as fair to poor for total phosphorus and turbidity. These issues, along with
reduced river flows, have led to algal blooms in the upper catchment (BRGCMA, 2007).
The Border Rivers have low salinity levels and no significant temporal trends were detected. The
Barwon, Macintyre and Dumaresq Rivers did not have any salinity problems, and all sites along
these rivers, except the Macintyre River at Holdfast, had medians that were in the low salinity level
category (0-280μS/cm). The Macintyre River at Holdfast had a medium salinity level (280800μS/cm) (McGloin, 2001).
Conversely, total phosphorus and turbidity levels gradually increase along the basin. Increases in
these levels are related to the changes in land use from grazing to cropping. The Macintyre River at
Holdfast had the highest turbidity median (20 NTU) in the sub-catchment. No significant temporal
trends were found for either of these variables, indicating that water quality is not improving
(DEWHA, 2009).
Monitoring of pesticides has shown a general decline in both the pesticide concentrations and
number of samples detected, particularly for Endosulfan and Atrazine (BRGCMA, 2007).
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 90th percentile in river flows
corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below summaries the
trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on this historical
analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water quality dependent
values.
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5.4.3.
5.4.3.1.
Campaspe
Overview
The Campaspe River Region is in Northern Victoria, covering approximately 4,000 km2 or 0.4 %
of the MDB (CSIRO, 2008c). The Campaspe River extends for 150 km from the northern slopes of
the Great Dividing Range near Woodend to the River Murray at Echuca. The Campaspe River and
its tributary Coliban River are the largest rivers in the Campaspe Basin, but other significant
tributaries include Axe, McIvor, Mt Pleasant, Forest, Wild Duck and Pipers Creeks.
The catchment is mainly cleared with only 13% of the original forest vegetation remaining
(Lorimer and Schoknecht, 1987). The catchment is agriculturally diverse, including dryland
agriculture in the southern part of the catchment and irrigation crops, dairy farms and horticulture
in the northern catchment. Dryland farming in the south produces cereal crops, beef cattle, lambs
and wool, and some potatoes. Dairy farms are concentrated in the irrigated areas in the northern
part of the catchment (NCCMA, 2005).
Reservoirs and weirs for potable supply and irrigation has substantially reduced flows throughout
the catchment and reversed seasonal flow patterns in the lower reaches. Regulation throughout the
Campaspe River catchment diverts approximately 50% of mean annual discharge for irrigation,
stock and domestic use (SKM, 2006a). The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced surface water
availability by 54 %, and reduced diversions by 26 % (CSIRO, 2008a). Climate change is expected
to reduce surface water availability by 16 % and reduce surface water use by 5 % (CSIRO, 2008a).
5.4.3.2.
Values
The Campaspe River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental



Fish: The fish community is in extremely poor condition. The community had lost most of its
native species richness, and alien species contributed most of the biomass and abundance
(Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition, with all zones
in poor to very poor condition. The communities at most sites were depleted and lacked many
disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Campaspe Region is ‘very poor’
(Davies et al., 2008).
Water Supply
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

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 0.2 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation
and 1.7 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. Campaspe Weir, near Elmore, diverts
flows to the Campaspe and Rochester Irrigation Districts and has a substantial effect on flow in
the lower Campaspe River. There is also a Siphon near Rochester that diverts flow for InterValley transfers via the Western Waranga Channel. Lake Eppalock captures most of the flow
from the upper part of the catchment during winter and spring and substantially reduces flow
in the entire lower half of the Campaspe River (SKM, 2006a).
Stock and domestic: The Upper Coliban, Lauriston and Malmsbury Reservoirs are on the
Coliban River, and supply potable water to Bendigo and other towns in the region. Lake
Eppalock supplements Bendigo’s water supply and services irrigation demand downstream.
5.4.3.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Campaspe Region is under threat from (NCCMA, 2005):

High salinity and saline stratified pools;

Sand slugs in the Coliban River;

Over-utilisation of water resources;

High nutrients and turbidity from land-uses;

Regional development (i.e. sustainable water management, land-use change).
5.4.3.4.
Water quality summary
High salinity, low dissolved oxygen and high nutrients are the three major water quality issues in
the Campaspe River. Salinity and dissolved oxygen issues are most pronounced in pools within the
Campaspe River downstream of the Campaspe Siphon and immediately downstream of Axe Creek
(McGuckin, 1990). The tributaries, Axe Creek and Mt Pleasant Creek, are highly eroded and have
elevated dryland salinity (SKM, 2006a). High flows from Lake Eppalock dilute inputs from these
tributaries in the Campaspe River during the irrigation season, but at other times the tributaries are
likely to adversely affect water quality in the main channel.
Saline groundwater intrusions increase salinity in the lower reach and also cause the water in the
pools to stratify under low flow conditions. Salinity levels slowly increase in the river from
1000 µS/cm to 3000 µS/cm during prolonged flows less than 100 ML/d (McGuckin, 1990).
Typically, the pools are well mixed at flows above 200 ML/d and they experience problems when
flows drop below 100 ML/d (SKM, 2006b). The lower water layer of pools can have salinities up
to 14,000 µS/cm and experience prolonged anoxic conditions during these low flows.
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Another dissolved oxygen issue centres around ‘blackwater events’. Blackwater is caused by high
loads of leaf litter and other organic matter being entrained into the water column through heavy
rainfall events. This effect causes sudden deoxygenation of the water column and can result in
catastrophic ecological effects. An example of this occurring was when heavy localised rainfall in
January 2001 flushed deoxygenated water from Mt Pleasant Creek and Forest Creek into the
Campaspe River, causing a large fish kill between Runnymeade and the Campaspe Weir
(McGuckin, 2001).
High nutrient levels are considered a major threat to river health throughout the region, and
discharge from the Campaspe River has a noticeable effect on nutrient levels in the River Murray
(Cottingham et al., 1995). The major sources are wastewater treatment plant effluent, urban
stormwater run-off, leaky septic tanks, diffuse runoff from agricultural land and soil erosion (SKM,
2006a). High nutrient levels can cause excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae. Algal bloom
have been reported in Lake Eppalock, Malmsbury Reservoir and Campaspe Weir (Cottingham et
al., 1995).
MONITORING SITE: 406202 Campaspe R @ Rochester
This site is located at Rochester, downstream of the Campaspe Siphon
5.4.4.
5.4.4.1.
Condamine-Balonne
Overview
The Condamine-Balonne Region is in southern Queensland and extends about 100 km to the southwest into New South Wales. It covers an area of 136,500 km2 or 13% of the MDB (CSIRO 2008).
The river changes name along its course. The Condamine River rises on the western side of the
Great Dividing Range in the north-eastern Basin, flows north-west then west to Surat, where it
becomes the Balonne River and flows south-westerly, breaking into distributary channels, the
largest of these becoming the Culgoa River (Davies et al., 2008). The river terminates either to the
Barwon River via the Culgoa and Bokhara rivers, or the Narran Lakes via braided streams on the
Lower Balonne Floodplain (Davies et al., 2008).
Land use in the Condamine-Balonne Region is dominated by dryland grazing and pasture. Other
land uses include the irrigated crops grain and cotton (CSIRO, 2008d). Native vegetation comprises
17% of the region.
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the Border
Rivers Region (CSIRO, 2008a). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by
8 %, and decrease surface water use by 4 % (CSIRO, 2008a).
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5.4.4.2.
Values
The Condamine-Balonne regional values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised
below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in moderate condition. Native fish were abundant, but were only
half the total biomass. The intrusion of alien species was widespread (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites were impoverished and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Condamine-Balonne river is
‘moderate’ (Davies et al., 2008).
Ramsar-listed wetlands: The Ramsar-listed Narran Lake Nature Reserve, located in NSW, is
part of a large terminal wetland of the Narran River (which receives water from the Balonne
River). This wetland is known for large-scale waterbird breeding associated with flooding
(CSIRO, 2008a). Parts of the Balonne River floodplain are also of national importance.
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses approximately 3 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation and
10 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. Around half of the annual average flow in the
region is diverted, mostly for irrigation. There are 36 weirs along the 1,200 km CondamineBalonne River, impounding up to 27% of the water. Groundwater extraction is also twice the
recharge rate, which is used to irrigate crops.
Stock and domestic: Groundwater bores supply stock and domestic needs in the CondamineBalonne region. Cooby dam, on a tributary of the Condamine River, also supplies drinking
water to Toowoomba.
5.4.4.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Condamine-Balonne Region is under threat from:

Loss of riverbank vegetation;

Overgrazing and stock access to the rivers;

High turbidity and phosphorus levels

Sewage treatment plant effluent and stormwater runoff;
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5.4.4.4.
Water quality summary
Water quality in the Condamine-Balonne Region has been deteriorating in recent years. There has
been increasing community concern over declining water quality, in particular, an increased
number of algal blooms and the detection of pesticides in water storage sediment.
Water quality in the catchment varies from largely complying with the ANZECC guidelines in the
upper catchment, to exceeding many of the parameters in the middle and lower floodplains. The
water quality of the Condamine-Balonne Region declines downstream, with increasing turbidity,
salinity and phosphorus (TREC, 2010). TP concentrations are extremely high in the middle
catchment. This is thought to be a result from a combination of factors, including high sediment
concentrations in the water and point discharges, such as treated sewerage, septic and animal
husbandry effluent discharges (DEWHA, 2009).
The Condamine-Balonne Region has low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th%ile
electrical conductivity (EC) levels at New Angeldool on the Narran River are 114 and 180 µS/cm
respectively. The EC levels decreased mildly to 114 and 147 µS/cm respectively during the recent
dry period (2007-08 data) (MDBA, 2009).
High levels of nitrates have been recorded in the groundwater, with concentrations in excess of 40
mg/L in the urban centres, where intensive animal industries and septic tank leakages are
concentrated. This is of particular concern to the Clifton Shire Council, which is dependent on
groundwater for its town water supply (TREC, 2010).
MONITORING SITE: Site #422015 Culgoa R @ Brenda and #422012 Narran R @ New Angeldool
The Condamine-Culgoa Rivers basin is located in the Murray-Darling drainage division. Set inland, the
topography is primarily flat with wide alluvial floodplains. There are slow flowing and meandering,
with long periods of low or zero flows during which the streams can become a series of waterholes
(DEWHA, 2009). The Balonne River break into distributary channels, the largest of these becoming
the Culgoa River (Davies et al., 2008). The river terminates either to the Barwon River via the Culgoa
and Bokhara rivers, or the Narran Lakes via braided streams on the Lower Balonne Floodplain.
5.4.5.
5.4.5.1.
Goulburn-Broken
Overview
The Goulburn-Broken region occupies just 2% of the Murray-Darling Basin (16,800 km2), but
provides 11% of the Basin’s stream flow (MDBC, 2008). The Goulburn River is the largest
Victorian tributary to the River Murray.
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The Broken River is a major tributary of the Goulburn River. A distributary channel, Broken
Creek, leaves Broken River downstream of Benalla and joins the River Murray downstream of
Barmah Forest (Cottingham et al., 2001). This naturally ephemeral creek, now continuously flows
due to overflows from irrigation, stock and domestic water allocations from the Broken River
(Cottingham et al., 2001).
The predominant land use in the catchment is dryland cereal cropping and grazing (CSIRO, 2008e).
A large proportion of the catchment is irrigated for pastures and hay and orchard production.
Reservoirs for potable supply and irrigation has substantially reduced flows throughout the
catchment and reversed seasonal flow patterns in the lower reaches. Lake Eildon is the major onstream storage on the Goulburn River. Water is harvested in winter and spring, and released for
irrigation supply from November to May. This causes a seasonal reversal in the flow regime in the
Goulburn River between Lake Eildon and Lake Nagambie (the major diversion point for irrigation
water).
Regulation throughout the Goulburn River catchment diverts approximately 50% of mean annual
discharge for irrigation, stock and domestic use. The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced
surface water availability by 41%, and reduced diversions by 25 % (CSIRO, 2008a). Climate
change is expected to reduce surface water availability by 14 % and reduce surface water use by 6
% (CSIRO, 2008a).
5.4.5.2.
Values
The Goulburn-Broken regional values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised
below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in extremely poor condition. Alien species dominate the biomass
and total abundance. The community has lost most of its native fish species richness (Davies
et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites were depleted and lacked most of the disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Goulburn-Broken Region is ‘very
poor’ (Davies et al., 2008).
Nationally important wetlands: The lower Goulburn River and floodplain downstream of Loch
Garry cover an area of 13,000 ha are listed as important billabongs, anabranches and swamps.
The wetlands support a large number of flora and fauna, including native fish species, water
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birds and vegetation communities. The river also influences the Ramsar-listed BarmahMillewa Forest and Gunbower Forest wetlands during periods of high flow (CSIRO, 2008a).
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region generates 11% of the runoff within the MDB, and uses approximately
14 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation and 5.4 % of the groundwater resource in the
MDB (CSIRO, 2008e). There are two instream storages, Lake Eildon (3334 GL) and Lake
Nagambie (25.5 GL), and the latter is connected to an offstream storage, Waranga Basin (432
GL). Water from here is transferred to the Loddon or Campaspe valleys. Another offstream
storage is Greens Lake (28 GL). Lake Nillahcootie is a major storages on the Broken River.
Stock and domestic: The Goulburn River supplies drinking water to Melbourne through the
Sugarloaf Pipeline, and also supplies many towns and cities in rural Victoria.
Recreation


Major storages, Lake Eildon and Lake Nagambie, are popular holiday destinations for water
skiing, sailing, swimming and fishing.
The lower Goulburn River floodplain is used extensively for recreation, including camping,
canoeing, swimming and fishing.
5.4.5.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Goulburn-Broken Region is under threat from:






Bank erosion;
Loss of instream habitat;
Stock access;
Water quality decline;
Algal blooms;
Degraded riparian vegetation.
5.4.5.4.
Water quality summary
Cold water pollution, high nutrients and turbidity and low dissolved oxygen are the major water
quality issues in the Goulburn–Broken Catchment. Cold water releases from Lake Eildon strongly
affect the biota downstream along the Goulburn River. Water temperatures are 5–7 °C lower than
temperatures upstream of Lake Eildon in summer and 2–3 °C warmer in winter (SKM, 2005).
While the catchment contributes approximately 33% of the River Murray’s water flow above the
Murrumbidgee, it contributes nearly 60% of the turbidity (GBCMA, 2003). High nutrient loads
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also increase the risk of algal blooms and they occur frequently in the catchment. Major sources of
turbidity and nutrients include irrigation drainage, sewage treatment plants, erosion, urban
stormwater and intensive animal industries such as fish farms. Commonly used pesticides in
intensive horticulture within the Shepparton Irrigation Region have been found in surface drainage
water (GBCMA, 2003).
Periodic algal blooms and high turbidity have occurred in the past in the Broken River. However,
the water quality in Broken River is improving because of the decommissioning of Lake Mokoan.
It is rated ‘good’ in the upper catchment with moderate nutrient concentrations and low salinity, but
declines downstream due to septic tank leakage and stormwater from Benalla (Cottingham et al.,
2001).
The Goulburn River has low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) at Goulburn Weir are 73 and 126 µS/cm respectively, which decreased to 59 and
101 µS/cm during the recent dry period (2007–08) (MDBA, 2009). Similarly, the Broken River has
low EC, with modelled long-term average levels at Casey’s Weir of 130 µS/cm (1975–2000),
which didn’t change in dry periods (SKM, 2009b).
Prolific growth of the aquatic plant Azolla in the slow-flowing weir pools in Broken Creek has
blanketed the surface of the water and cause the depletion of oxygen in the water column. Low
dissolved oxygen due to the Azolla and the stagnation of flows, is considered to be the most likely
cause of a large fish kill in 2002, where 179 Murray cod died between Rice’s and Kennedy’s Weirs
(MDBC, 2005).
MONITORING SITE: Site #405259 Goulburn R @ Goulburn Weir
The Goulburn basin is located in the north central part of the State and has 17 monitoring sites
representing roughly 100% of the basin. The majority of the catchment is used for agriculture with a
small amount used for forestry.
5.4.6.
5.4.6.1.
Gwydir
Overview
The Gwydir River Region is in north-eastern New South Wales. It rises on the western side of the
Great Dividing range, near Armidale, and flows west (Davies et al., 2008). The river splits near the
township of Moree, where it forms the Gwydir and Lower Gwydir Rivers. It covers 2 % of the
MDB (CSIRO, 2008f).
The predominant land use in the Gwydir region is dryland beef and sheep grazing (CSIRO, 2008f).
Lucerne and pasture are grown on the floodplains in the upper Gwydir River and dryland crops are
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grown on the western plains (CSIRO, 2008f). Major agricultural industries are cotton, beef cattle,
pecan-nutes, olives, wheat, wool and cereal crops. Native vegetation comprises 15% of the region.
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the Gwydir
River Region (CSIRO, 2008f). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by
10 %, and reduce surface water diversions by 8 % (CSIRO, 2008a). The Gwydir River is highly
regulated by the Copeton Dam and river flows are also affected by major water extractions.
5.4.6.2.
Values
The Gwydir River regional values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. The majority of predicted native fish were
present, but were only a third of the total biomass. The fish community had lost most of its
species richness and was dominated by alien fish (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites were impoverished and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Gwydir River Region is ‘poor’
(Davies et al., 2008).
Ramsar-listed wetlands: The Gwydir Wetlands cover an area of about 100,000 ha on the lower
floodplain of the Gwydir River downstream of Moree. Four privately owned portions of these
wetlands have received Ramsar-listing. They contain large expanses of Coolibah woodland,
Water couch and Marsh Club-rush vegetation communities and the wetlands provide habitat
for waterbirds listed under international treaties (CSIRO, 2008f).
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses approximately 3.5 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation
and 2.8 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. A high proportion (41%) of the surface
water available in the Gwydir River is diverted for use. Groundwater use is 12 % of the
average total water use. Nearly 90 % of the water used for irrigation is from the river (CSIRO,
2008f).
Stock and domestic: Moree’s town water supply is from the Sub Artesian Bore. Small private
diversions from the Gwydir River provide for stock and domestic needs.
Recreation

Hot mineral baths are a popular tourist attraction. These baths are from groundwater bores in
the Great Artesian Basin.
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5.4.6.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Gwydir Region is under threat from (BRGCMA, 2007):

flow diversion;

uncontrolled stock access and grazing of wetland vegetation;

overclearing of native vegetation and further decline in native vegetation;

weed invasion including the prolific aquatic weed, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes);


inappropriate and excessive use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers, which affects water
quality;
increased incidence of fires and inappropriate fire management.
5.4.6.4.
Water quality summary
There are a number of water quality issues in the Gwydir region. Diffuse sources of pollution
associated with soil and streambank erosion increase turbidity, particularly in the lowland reaches
of the catchment (BRGCMA, 2007). Excessive use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers is also
recognised as a major threat to water quality. This has caused a change in water chemistry which
favours algal growth and also growth of weed species instream and along the banks of waterways
and wetlands. The mid‐catchment tributaries, Horton River and Warialda, Myall and Tycannah
Creeks, have high salt concentrations (BRGCMA, 2007).
High levels of turbidity are associated with stream bank and streambed erosion most likely
associated with removal of riparian vegetation, but also an unnatural flow regime associated with
releases from Copeton Dam. Thermal pollution downstream of Copeton Dam is another issue that
is affecting water quality within the Gwydir River system (Copeland et al., 2003).
High phosphorus, nitrogen and pesticides in this agricultural catchment are linked to excessive use
of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. It is also exacerbated by the removal of native vegetation
(BRGCMA, 2007).
The Gwydir River has moderate salinity levels. The modelled long-term average electrical
conductivity (EC) at Pallamallawa is 350 µS/cm, which was modelled to increase mildly to 376
µS/cm during dry periods (SKM, 2009b). Tributaries in the middle of the catchment deliver high
salt loads (BRGCMA, 2007).
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MONITORING SITE: Site # 418058 Mehi River @ Bronte
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
682738
6739005
29.4651
148.8845
5.4.7.
5.4.7.1.
Lachlan
Overview
The Lachlan River Region is in central-western NSW. This region is based around the Lachlan
River, which terminates in diverging creeks and the Great Cumbung Swamp in the lower part of its
catchment. The Lachlan River is the only terminal system in the MDB and represents 8% of the
total area of the MDB (CSIRO, 2008g).
The dominant land use in the catchment is sheep and beef cattle grazing, and irrigated cropping of
cereal, pasture and hay, with some small areas of cotton, orchards, viticulture and horticulture.
Native vegetation constitutes less than 20% of the region (CSIRO, 2008g).
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the Lachlan
River Region (CSIRO, 2008g). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by
11 %, and reduce surface water diversions by 8 % (CSIRO, 2008g). The flows in the Lachlan River
are erratic and can have periods of zero flow over a year (e.g. 1944/45).
5.4.7.2.
Values
The Lachlan River regional values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in extremely poor condition. Loss of species richness, low
abundance of native species and intrusions by alien species were apparent (Davies et al.,
2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. There was a
substantial loss of expected families, and most sites lacked many disturbance-sensitive
families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Lachlan River Region is ‘Very Poor’
(Davies et al., 2008).
Nationally significant wetlands: The Booligal Wetlands complex covers 500 ha in the lower
Lachlan and is well known for providing critical habitat for waterbirds. The Great Cumbung
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Swamp covers 16,000 ha at the terminus of the Lachlan River and is adjacent to the
Murrumbidgee River and Lowbidgee Wetlands. It is one of the most important waterbird
breeding areas in eastern Australia, supporting a large number of waterbirds during periods of
flooding.
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses approximately 3.5 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation
and 14.1% of the groundwater resource in the MDB. A high proportion (63 %) of the surface
water available in the Lachlan River is diverted for use. Wyangala Dam on the Lachlan River
upstream of Cowra is the major water storage. Groundwater is extracted from alluvial aquifers
in the western portion of the region to irrigate cotton crops (CSIRO, 2008g).
Stock and domestic: Groundwater is extracted from alluvial aquifers in the western portion of
the region for stock and domestic use (CSIRO, 2008g).
Recreation

Recreational Fishing, water skiing.
5.4.7.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Lachlan Region is under threat from (LCMA, 2006):

Highly variable flows;

dryland salinity;

declining surface‐water quality;

declining health and abundance of native vegetation;

degradation of riparian and wetland ecosystems.

5.4.7.4.
Water quality summary
The major surface water quality issues in the Lachlan Catchment are increasing salinity, high
nutrient levels, increasing frequency of algal blooms, high turbidity, pesticides and thermal
pollution (LCMA, 2006). Groundwater resources are over-allocated in some areas of the catchment
with consequences for groundwater dependent ecosystems, beneficial users and groundwater
quality.
Thermal pollution in rivers of the Lachlan catchment refers to the release of cold water from
storages that alter the normal river temperature and impacts on aquatic habitat. It has been
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recognised as having a significant effect on the conditions required for native fish breeding in the
Lachlan Catchment. Unseasonal changes in water temperatures at critical times have been reported
approximately 170 km downstream of Wyangala Dam hindering fish breeding activities (LCMA,
2006).
The Lachlan River has elevated salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th%ile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Forbes are 471 and 609 µS/cm respectively. The EC levels increased
mildly during the recent dry period (2007-08) (MDBA, 2009). Electrical conductivity is high in the
Boorowra River, with levels of over 1400 EC have already been recorded in town water supplies.
The WHO guideline for drinking water quality is below 800 EC.
High nutrient loads in the catchment are the result of erosion. Diffuse sources (i.e. erosion, farm
runoff) contribute 95% of the nutrient loads, while estimated 3% comes from point sources (i.e.
trade waste, urban stormwater and sewage) (LCMA, 2006). These high nutrient loads increase the
incidence of algal blooms. Blue-green algae monitoring of rivers and storages in the Lachlan
catchment in 2008-09 showed that algal blooms were greatest at Lake Cargelligo, with bloom
conditions reported for more than 50% of the time. Bloom conditions were also reported at times at
Lake Forbes and Wyangala Reservoir.
MONITORING SITE: Site #412004 Lachlan River at Forbes
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
592199
6303639
33.40261
147.9915
5.4.8.
5.4.8.1.
Loddon
Overview
The Loddon River Region is in northern Victoria and covers 1.2 % of the MDB. This region
consists of the Loddon River, which river rises in the Great Dividing Range south of Daylesford
and flows 310 km to the River Murray north of Kerang (NCCMA, 2005). The majority of the flow
is derived from the high rainfall area in the upper catchment above Laanecoorie Reservoir. In the
lower catchment, downstream of Serpentine, the Loddon River becomes a series of anatomising
distributary streams flowing northwards across the Riverine Plain with a floodplain 21 km wide
(LREFSP, 2002). Barr Creek is the final tributary to enter the Loddon River. It drains an irrigation
catchment and is considered to be one of the saltiest inland waterways in Victoria. A pump station
located along the lower reaches of Barr Creek diverts water to the storage basin of Lake Tutchewop
to manage flows and salinity levels in the Lower Loddon River and River Murray (NCCMA,
2005).
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The predominant land use in the region is dryland agriculture, primarily cereal cropping and
grazing. An extensive area is irrigated for cereal production and pasture for dairying, where the
water supply is supported by inter-valley transfers from the Campaspe and Goulburn Rivers
(Davies et al., 2008). Native vegetation covers only 11% of the region (CSIRO, 2008h).
Reservoirs and weirs for potable supply and irrigation has substantially reduced flows throughout
the catchment and reversed seasonal flow patterns in the lower reaches. Regulation throughout the
Loddon catchment diverts approximately 32 % of mean annual discharge for irrigation, stock and
domestic use (CSIRO, 2008h). The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced surface water
availability by 50 %, and reduced diversions by 27 % (CSIRO, 2008h). Climate change is
expected to reduce surface water availability by 18 % and reduce surface water use by 6 %.
5.4.8.2.
Values
The Loddon River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in extremely poor condition. The fish community has losses in
native species, low abundance of native fish and intrusion of alien species (Davies et al.,
2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites were impoverished and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Loddon Region is ‘very poor’ (Davies
et al., 2008).
Ramsar-listed wetlands: The Kerang Wetlands, which spans the boundary of the Loddon and
Murray regions, is listed as Ramar site of international significance. The lower Loddon River
downstream of Kerang Weir provides important aquatic habitat for native fish species.
Water Supply

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 0.8 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation
and 1.7 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. Instream storages in the upper catchment
include Cairn Curran and Tullaroop Dams and Laanecoorie Reservoir. Irrigation in the
Pyramid Hill and Boort Irrigation areas are also supported by inter-valley transfers from the
Campaspe, Murray and Goulburn Rivers via the Waranga Western Channel. Instream weirs
(Serpentine, Loddon, Boags and Kerang) provide hydraulic heads for diversions.
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
Stock and domestic: The major reservoirs provide water supply to towns in the region, such as
Tullaroop to Maryborough. Water supply at Kerang is supplemented with diversions from the
Loddon River at Kerang.
5.4.8.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Loddon Region is under threat from:

Cease to flow in the river between Loddon Weir and Kerang Weir;

Dryland salinity;

Blackwater events;

Colonisation of the river channel by riparian vegetation;

Over-utilisation of water resources;

Soil health (i.e. acid sulphate soils, soil erosion, soil structure decline);


Water resources (i.e. water quality and river health decline, flooding due to changed land
management, flow regulation, poor drainage, groundwater management);
Regional development (i.e. sustainable water management, land-use change).
5.4.8.4.
Water quality summary
The water quality of the Loddon River decreases downstream due to high turbidity and nutrients
and low in dissolved oxygen. The Loddon River is among the most turbid streams in Victoria with
an average turbidity of 57 NTU (LREFSP 2002), almost twice the State Environment Protection
Policy (Waters of Victoria) guideline of 30 NTU for Murray and Western Plains. Total nitrogen
(TN) and total phosphorus (TP) levels are also elevated in the Loddon River compared to the SEPP
(2003) guidelines.
The Loddon River has elevated salinity levels. The modelled salinity at Laanecoorie Reservoir
during the period from 1975 to 2000 was 1049 µS/cm (1975-2000), which increased to 1278 µS/cm
during dry periods (1995-2000) (SKM 2009). Barr Creek has historically been the largest point
source of salt to the River Murray. However, the amount of salt (and other pollutants) discharged to
the River Murray is now partially controlled by the Lake Tutchewop diversion/evaporation scheme
located at the downstream end of Barr Creek.
Water quality declines significantly during cease to flow periods in the lower Loddon River.
Isolated pools generally have low dissolved oxygen (DO), warm temperatures and high turbidity.
Blackwater events have been reported in the Loddon River between Loddon Weir and Kerang
Weir, particularly around the Twelve Mile Creek Offtake (SKM 2008). Continuous DO and
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temperature monitoring since April 2007, has shown that DO levels in isolated pools in the Loddon
River declines to anoxic levels during the night and becomes super-saturated during the day. Algal
blooms of varying severity occur annually in the Kerang Weir.
MONITORING SITE: Site # Loddon River at Kerang
5.4.9.
5.4.9.1.
Macquarie-Castlereagh
Overview
The Macquarie-Castlereagh Region is in central-west NSW and covers 6.9 % of the MDB (CSIRO,
2008i). This region contains the Macquarie, Castlereagh and Bogan Rivers. The Macquarie River is
one of the main inland rivers in NSW. This system is a network of tributaries, anabranches and
distributary streams that are of considerable importance for water resources, both for consumptive
users and the environment. The three rivers travel generally northwest and end at the Macquarie
Mashes (Macquarie River) or along the Barwon-Darling River (Castlereagh and Bogan Rivers).
The predominant land use in the region is dryland pasture for livestock grazing. There are also
areas irrigated for cotton and pasture production. Native vegetation covers 21.3% of the region.
The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate in the
Macquarie-Castlereagh Region (CSIRO, 2008i). Climate change is expected to reduce surface
water availability by 8 %, and reduce surface water diversions by 4 %(CSIRO, 2008i).
5.4.9.2.
Values
The Macquarie-Castlereagh River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised
below.
Environmental



Fish: The fish community is in very poor condition. There were low abundance of native fish
and alien species dominate the biomass and abundance (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites had sparse fauna and lacked most disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Macquarie-Castlereagh Region is
‘very poor’ (Davies et al., 2008).
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
Ramsar-listed wetlands: The Macquarie Marshes are located at the end of the region. These
wetlands are one of the largest and most important in the MDB. The Marshes are a series of
braided channels and swamps that receive winter-spring floods from the Macquarie River,
which maintains an inland reed swamp and open floodplain woodland wetland.
Water Supply


Irrigation: Surface water diversions in the region account for less than 4 % of the surface water
diverted for irrigation and groundwater use is 10.9 % of the MDB. Instream storages include
Burrendong Dam, Windamere Dam and Ben Chifley Dam. Eighty percent of the irrigation
water is sourced from surface water diversions (CSIRO, 2008i).
Stock and domestic: The major reservoirs provide water supply to towns in the region, such as
Bathurst (Ben Chiefly), Mid-Western Region (Windamere Dam) and the Macquarie Valley
(Burrendong Dam). The Macquarie River is used for stock, watering of parks, ovals, school
grounds, gardens, industry, human consumption and recreation (Jenkins, 1998).
Recreation

Fishing, canoeing and boating around the Macquarie Marshes.
5.4.9.3.
Threats
The water quality and flows in the Macquarie–Castlereagh Region is under threat from:

Dryland salinity.

Declining surface water quality.

Clearing of native riparian vegetation has resulted in widespread instability and erosion of the
riverbanks. This also contributes to the accumulation of silt and sand in the river.

Decreased flows at times of low flow and drought, with a reduction in the size of waterholes.

Increased incidence of algal blooms, and nutrient inputs.


Point and diffuse source pollution from urban and rural lands. This includes herbicides,
nutrients, insecticides, fertilisers, stormwater run-off, septic systems and stock access to
streams, and microbial contamination from sewerage treatment works.
Rising watertables, dryland salinity and increased surface water salinity and turbidity.
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5.4.9.4.
Water quality summary
The major water quality issues in the Macquarie-Castlereagh Region are increasing trends in the
levels of salinity, turbidity, nutrients, pesticides, thermal pollution and faecal coliforms (Jenkins,
1998).
The Macquarie River has elevated salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile
electrical conductivity (EC) levels at Carinda are 564 and 666 µS/cm respectively, which decreased
to 384 and 622 µS/cm respectively during the recent dry period (2007/08)(MDBA, 2009).
Similarly, the Castlereagh River has elevated salinity levels with long-term median and 80th
percentile EC levels at Gungalman Bridge of 413 and 764 µS/cm, which decreased over the recent
dry period (2007/08) (MDBA, 2009). Levels of salinity rise and fall as water is released from
Burrendong Dam (Jenkins, 1998). The level of salinity in the lower Macquarie River is influenced
by high salt loads entering from the Talbragar River.
Elevated turbidity levels in the downstream reaches of the Macquarie River are partially natural in
their origin due to the highly weathered and ancient soils of the Western Plains. However, land
clearing, cultivation, over grazing, roads and urban development have added significantly to
turbidity levels (Jenkins, 1998).
Nutrients enter the Macquarie-Castlereagh Rivers from diffuse farm runoff, sewerage treatment
plant effluent, industrial discharges, septic tank leakage and stock access. The natural geology,
particularly basalt, is also a major source of phosphorus (Jenkins, 1998). Algal blooms have
occurred in Burrendong Dam and in the Macquarie River downstream as far as Warren weir.
Burrendong Dam, during the summer months, becomes thermally stratified which increases the
likelihood of algal blooms. There is also an impact on the river's aquatic ecosystem downstream by
the release of hypoxic, cold and nutrient enriched water from the dam. This release of coldwater is
suspected to affect the temperature of the Macquarie River as far down as Warren (Jenkins, 1998).
The main pesticide detected in the Macquarie River is endosulfan, which is present during the
spray season in areas downstream of irrigated agriculture (Jenkins, 1998). The faecal bacteria count
is also rated fair to poor around urban centres, and makes the water unsuitable for primary contact.
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MONITORING SITE: Site #420020 Castlereagh River @ Gungalman Bridge; Site #421012
Macquarie River @ Carinda; Site # 421023 Bogan River @ Gongolgon
The Key Sites Water Quality Monitoring Program conducted by the Department of Land and Water Conservation
since 1992, aims to provide information on long term trends in river water quality. It assesses water quality in three
areas: Total Phosphorus, Electrical Conductivity and Turbidity.
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
420020
595967
6646430
30.31011
147.9981
421012
554695
6632902
30.43472
147.5697
421023
490503
6642599
30.34845
146.9012
5.4.10. Moonie
5.4.10.1. Overview
The Moonie River Region is located mainly within south-western Queensland. It covers 1.4 % of
the MDB (CSIRO, 2008j). The river flows in a south-west into NSW to the west of Mungindi and
then into the Barwon River.
The catchment contains no major towns and is undeveloped rural land. The dominant land use
within the region is dryland pasture for livestock grazing. There is a small amount of irrigated
cotton crops. Native vegetation comprises only 14.2 % of the region (CSIRO, 2008j).
The Moonie River is ephemeral and the flow regime is dominated by extended periods of no flow.
During these frequent and occasionally prolonged periods without flow the persistence of
waterholes becomes of critical importance (CSIRO, 2008j). The recent climate (1997-2006) has
been similar to the long-term average climate in the Moonie Region (CSIRO, 2008j). Climate
change is expected to reduce surface water availability by 12 %, and reduce surface water
diversions by 6 % (CSIRO, 2008j).
5.4.10.2. Values
The Moonie River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental

Fish: The fish community is in moderate condition. Native fish were abundant and most of the
predicted native species occurred throughout the region. The intrusion of alien species was
moderate (Davies et al., 2008).
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


Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in moderate condition with the
lowland and slopes zones in better condition than the upland and montane zones. The
communities at most sites were depleted and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Moonie River is ‘moderate-good’
(Davies et al., 2008).
Wetlands: There are floodplain wetlands along the Moonie River and the Thallon waterholes
have been identified as significant for waterbirds in the MDB (CSIRO, 2008j).
Water Supply


Irrigation: Surface water diversions in the region account for less than 0.2 % of the surface
water diverted for irrigation and groundwater use is 0.1% of the MDB (excluding the confined
aquifers of the Great Artesian Basin that provide around 70 percent of the groundwater used in
the region).The Moonie River is unregulated and surface water diversions are small. However,
almost all irrigation in the region depends on surface water (CSIRO, 2008j). There is one water
storage facility on the river, Thallon Weir.
Stock and domestic: Some water is taken from the sedimentary deposits that overly the Great
Artesian Basin for stock and domestic purposes.
5.4.10.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Moonie Region is under threat from:

Uncontrolled stock grazing

Road crossings

Sedimentation

Dryland salinity, soil acidity
5.4.10.4. Water quality summary
The Moonie River is ephemeral and the flow regime is dominated by extended periods of no flow.
During these frequent and occasionally prolonged periods without flow the persistence of
waterholes of good quality becomes of critical importance to aquatic life.
Generally waters of the Moonie River have high and variable turbidity, and increasing salinity and
phosphorus with distance downstream. Excessive growth of algae is a major problem throughout
streams in the north-western part of the catchment. Algal growth has resulted from nutrient
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enrichment from agricultural runoff, erosion of soils naturally high in phosphorus, septic tank
effluent and low turbidity waters (Davies et al., 2008).
The Moonie River has low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Fenton are 125 and 155 µS/cm. The EC levels increased mildly during
dry periods to 138 and 155 µS/cm respectively (MDBA, 2009).
Some water is taken from the overlying alluvial system for stock and domestic purposes. It is
generally high in salinity (>20,000 mg/L Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)) though local perched
systems in the lower reaches can be fresher (<350 mg/L TDS).
Pressures on water quality are a major community concern in the Moonie catchment, with the
removal of native vegetation, cropping and cattle grazing, and runoff from settlements and treated
sewage discharges, each implicated in declines in water quality standards in the catchment.
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 50th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record due to lack of data) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 50th percentile in
river flows corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below
summaries the trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on
this historical analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water
quality dependent values.

Table 5-6 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Moonie River
Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Climate Scenario
Water Quality
Trajectory *
Environmental values
(High)
Water Supply values
(low)
-fish, macroinvertebrates
-irrigation
Wet Extreme Risks
(Low)
-pH
↓Salinity
↓Turbidity
↓Total nitrogen
- Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
Water quality generally
improves when the river
is flowing.
Water quality generally
improves when the river
is flowing.
Dry Extreme Risks
(High)
↑ pH
↑Salinity
↑Turbidity
↑Total nitrogen
↓ Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
↑Algal growth
As an ephemeral system,
good water quality in
refuge pools is essential
for the survival of aquatic
organisms. Dry extremes
present a risk from low
DO, high turbidity and
increasing salinity. Algal
1
growth is also an issue .
Water is used for
irrigation and stock
watering. High turbidity
and increasing salinity
levels present a risk to
water supply values.
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*This assessment is based on limited data; (1) based on literature review – not data.
5.4.11. River Murray
5.4.11.1. Overview
The River Murray is Australia’s largest river. It forms the border between NSW and Victoria as it
flows northwest, before turning south into South Australia. This region extends the full length of
the River Murray and includes the lower Darling River, representing 19.5% of the MDB (CSIRO,
2008k).
The River Murray is strongly affected by inflows from the Barwon-Darling, Murrumbidgee,
Ovens, Goulburn-Broken, Campaspe and Loddon River regions (CSIRO, 2008k). The River
Murray terminates at Lake Alexandrina and The Coorong before emptying through the Murray
Mouth into the Southern Ocean.
The predominant land use in the region is dryland pasture for livestock grazing and dryland
cropping. Other land uses include horticulture, hay production and rice growing. Forestry
plantations are common in the upper Murray catchment. Native vegetation covers 22 % of the
region (CSIRO, 2008k).
Regulation throughout the River Murray region diverts approximately 56 % of mean annual
discharge for irrigation, stock and domestic use, which is extremely high. The recent climate
(1997-2006) has reduced surface water availability by 30 %, and reduced diversions by 13 %
(CSIRO, 2008k). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by 14 %, reduce
surface water use by 4 % and reduce end of system flows by 24% (CSIRO, 2008k).
5.4.11.2. Values
The River Murray regional values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental


Fish: The upper Murray fish community was in extremely poor condition, while the central
and lower fish community was in poor condition. Alien species dominate the biomass and total
abundance. The community has lost most of its native fish species richness (Davies et al.,
2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The upper Murray macroinvertebrate community was in moderate
condition, while the central and lower macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition.
The communities at most sites were depleted and lacked most of the disturbance-sensitive
families.
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

Ecosystem health: The river ecosystem health in the upper River Murray is ‘very poor’, while
the central and lower Murray was in ‘poor’ condition (Davies et al., 2008).
Ramsar-listed wetlands: The River Murray Region contains several large and important
wetlands, including the Living Murray Icon sites. These include the Barmah-Millewa Forest,
Gunbower-Koondrook-Perricoota Forest, Lower Darling River and Anabranch Lakes, Hattah
Lakes, Chowilla Floodplain and Lindsay-Wallpolla Islands, and the lower Lakes, Coorong and
the Murray Mouth. The wetlands support a large number of flora and fauna, including native
fish species, water birds and vegetation communities.
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses over 36 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation and urban use
and 14 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB (CSIRO, 2008k). Major storages used for
irrigation and water supply are Dartmouth Dam, Lake Hume, Yarrawonga Weir, Lake
Victoria, Torrumbarry Weir, and Weirs 1-10 (Loch).
Stock and domestic: The River Murray supplies drinking water many towns and cities in rural
Victoria, NSW and SA. It is a key drinking water source for the city of Adelaide.
Recreation


Major storages are popular holiday destinations for water skiing, sailing, swimming and
fishing.
The River Murray floodplain is used extensively for recreation, including camping, canoeing,
swimming and fishing.
5.4.11.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Murray Region is under threat from:

Overgrazing and stock access to floodplain;

Discharges from wastewater treatment plants;

Urban stormwater;

Irrigation drainage, land clearing and poor land management;

Degradation of the riparian zone;

Altered flow regime and over-allocated resources;

Rising salinity;
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
Nutrients and suspended sediments are poor and worsening towards the Murray Mouth;

Algal blooms.
5.4.11.4. Water quality summary
The major water quality threats in the River Murray region are salinity, algal blooms and cold
water pollution.
The River Murray has increasing salinity levels along its length. The long-term median and 80th
percentile electrical conductivity (EC) levels at Murray Bridge are 555 and 811 EC respectively.
During the recent dry period the median EC decreased mildly to 623 EC, but the 80th percentile
increased to 832 EC for 2007/08 (MDBA, 2009).
Many significant algal blooms have occurred throughout the history of the river. The first ever
algal bloom recorded in Australia was discovered in Lake Alexandria in 1878. The two most
common types of blue-green algal species recorded in the River Murray are Anabaena sp. and
Microcystis sp. Blue-green algal blooms have been increasing in frequency and duration in the
River Murray between Lake Hume to Wentworth during the recent drought. Blue green algal
blooms prevent water-based recreational activities, such as fishing and swimming, and can disrupt
drinking water treatment processes.
Cold water pollution is an issue downstream of Dartmouth Dam. This is caused by the release of
cold water from storages that alter the normal river temperature and impacts on aquatic habitat
downstream. It has been recognised as having a significant effect on the conditions required for
native fish breeding in the upper Murray region. This is caused by storage releases, is a key issue
for riverine ecology, particularly fish species.
Blackwater events, associated with the flooding of the Barmah-Millewa Forests are also known to
adversely affect water quality in the River Murray (Howitt et al., 2007).
MONITORING SITE: Site # 409016 Murray River @ D/S Hume Weir (Heywoods)
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
502163
6005038
36.0993
147.024
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5.4.12. Murrumbidgee
5.4.12.1. Overview
The Murrumbidgee Region is located in southern NSW. It covers 8.2% of the MDB (CSIRO,
2008m). The Murrumbidgee River is a major river draining most of southern NSW and all of the
Australian Capital Territory (ACT). It travels west 900 km from the Snowy Mountains, through
the ACT, to its confluence with the River Murray.
The predominant land use is dryland pasture for livestock grazing and dryland cropping. There are
also irrigated areas for cereals, pasture and hay production, and citrus and grapes are grown in the
central area of the irrigation district. Native vegetation covers 17% of the region (CSIRO, 2008m).
Regulation throughout the Murrumbidgee catchment diverts approximately 53 % of mean annual
discharge for irrigation, stock and domestic use, which is an extremely high level of water resource
development (CSIRO, 2008m). The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced surface water
availability by 30 %, and reduced diversions by 18 % (CSIRO, 2008m). Climate change is
expected to be less severe than the recent climate, and is expected to reduce surface water
availability by 9 % and reduce surface water use by 2 %.
5.4.12.2. Values
The Murrumbidgee River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in extremely poor condition. The fish community has losses in
native species, low abundance of native fish and intrusion of alien species (Davies et al.,
2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites had low diversity and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Murrumbidgee Region is ‘very poor’
(Davies et al., 2008).
Nationally important wetlands: the Mid Murrumbidgee Wetlands and Lowbidgee Floodplain
are important wetlands supporting native vegetation communities of River Red Gum forests
and woodlands.
Water Supply

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 22 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation and
24 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. Instream storages in the catchment include
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Blowering Reservoir and Lake Burrinjuck. Blowering Reservoir is used to supply irrigation
water in the region.

Stock and domestic: The Cotter Dam, on the Cotter River, which is a tributary of the
Murrumbidgee River, supplies drinking water to Canberra.
Recreation

Major storages are used for boating and water-sports.
5.4.12.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Murrumbidgee Region is under threat from:

erosion and riverbank instability;

blue-green algal blooms;

salinity from dryland areas and from rising groundwater;

thermal pollution;

sewage entering creeks and rivers;

nutrient runoff from farms;

uncontrolled stock access; and

pesticides and other chemicals entering creeks and rivers.
5.4.12.4. Water quality summary
The major water quality issues in the Murrumbidgee are high turbidity and moderate nutrient levels
(Gell and Little, 2007;DEWHA, 2009). The major storages release good quality water upstream,
but degraded inflows from the mid-catchment tributaries and catchment land use degrades water
quality downstream.
Water with low levels of salinity and moderate levels of turbidity are generally released from
Burrinjuck Dam. The major source of sediments, and thus phosphorus loads, in the upper and midMurrumbidgee comes from erosion of stream banks, stream beds and gullies. The lower
Murrumbidgee Catchment acts as a sink for nutrients.
In the major storages, Blowering Dam generally has good water quality, as a result of a nearpristine catchment. Nutrient levels, algal counts and turbidity levels are generally very low.
Burrinjuck storage has variable nutrients, with some releases containing moderate levels of
nitrogen and phosphorus. There are frequent blue-green algal blooms during spring and summer.
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The Murrumbidgee River has low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile
electrical conductivity (EC) levels at Balranald Weir are 275 and 415 µS/cm respectively. EC
levels have decreased marginally during the recent dry period (MDBA, 2009).
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘wet years’ due to catchment runoff (defined as the 90th percentile in river flows
corresponding to the water quality record) and improves in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th
percentile in river flows corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table
below summaries the trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes
based on this historical analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional
water quality dependent values.

Table 5-7 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Murrumbidgee
Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Climate Scenario
Water Quality
Trajectory
Environmental
values (High)
Water Supply
values (High)
Recreational
Values (Mod)
-fish,
macroinvertebrates
-wetlands
-irrigation
-stock and
domestic
-primary contact
-secondary contact
-aesthetic values
Wet Extreme Risks
(Med)
-pH
↑Salinity
-Turbidity
↑Total phosphorus
↑Total nitrogen
↓Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
An increase in
nutrient loads from
catchment runoff
may lead to
nuisance plant
growth and algal
blooms, with lethal
effects for aquatic
organisms.
Increasing salinity
levels may go
beyond the
tolerance levels for
some species.
Algal toxins and
algal biomass may
cause water to be
unsuitable for
stock and
domestic drinking
water, and also
clog infrastructure
for irrigation.
Increasing salinity
levels also make
water unsuitable.
The human health,
odour and visual
impacts from algal
blooms in the river
will impact on
primary, secondary
and aesthetic
values.
Dry Extreme Risks
(Med)
-pH
↓Salinity
- Turbidity
↓Total phosphorus
↓Total nitrogen
↓Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
Low dissolved
oxygen levels during
warm weather may
stress aquatic
organisms.
High turbidity
levels may
present water
treatment
concerns.
High turbidity levels
may present
human health
concerns from
associated
pathogens.
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5.4.13. Namoi
5.4.13.1. Overview
The Namoi River region is located in north-eastern NSW. It covers 3.8% of the MDB (CSIRO,
2008n). This region contains the Namoi, Manilla and Peel Rivers. The Namoi River rises in the
Great Dividing Range and flows west to join the Barwon River.
The predominant land use is cattle and sheep grazing on dryland pastures. Wheat, cotton and other
broadacre crops are grown on the floodplains. Native vegetation covers 25.6% of the region
(CSIRO, 2008n).
Approximately 37 % of mean annual discharge is diverted for irrigation, stock and domestic use
(CSIRO, 2008n). The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term average climate
in the Namoi Region (CSIRO, 2008n). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water
availability by 5 % and reduce surface water use by 1 %.
5.4.13.2. Values
The Namoi River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. Most predicted native species were found, but
alien fish were abundant (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites had low diversity and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Namoi Region is ‘poor’ (Davies et al.,
2008).
Nationally important wetlands: Lake Goran, adjacent to the Liverpool Plains, is the terminus
of an internal drainage basin that does not connect to the Namoi River. Other billabongs and
wetlands are important environmental assets for providing the river with dissolved organic
matter.
Water Supply

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 2.6 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation in
the MDB. It has one of the highest levels of groundwater extraction in the MDB, using 15.2 %
of the groundwater resource (CSIRO, 2008n). Instream storages in the catchment include
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Keepit Dam (Namoi), Split Rock Dam (Manilla) and Chaffey Dam (Peel), which store water
for irrigation supply.

Stock and domestic: Weirs on the Namoi provide urban, stock and domestic supplies (Davies
et al., 2008).
5.4.13.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Namoi Region is under threat from:

degradation of the riparian zone from weeds and overgrazing;

bank and riverbed instability, and aggradation of sediments;

poor water quality, mainly because of high total phosphorus, turbidity and salinity levels and
localised incidence of pesticide contamination;

dryland salinity;

sedimentation from overgrazing, erosion and bank slumping;

increasing frequency of algal blooms; and

excessive groundwater usage, particularly in the drier months.
5.4.13.4. Water quality summary
Major water quality issues in the Namoi Region include salinity, turbidity, nutrient enrichment and
contamination with agricultural chemicals. Water quality in the Namoi River is variable and often
does not meet ANZECC (2000) guidelines(NCMA, 2007).
The Namoi River has elevated salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Goangra are 403 and 556 µS/cm respectively. The EC levels decreased
to 284 and 397 µS/cm during the recent dry period (2007/08) (MDBA, 2009). Salinity is widely
recognised as a land and water management problem across the region. A number of major
tributaries of the Namoi have inherently high salinity levels, including Goonoo Goonoo, Mooki,
Upper Manilla, Quirindi and Werris Creeks (NCMA, 2007)
Total phosphorus and total nitrogen concentrations are high across the catchment due to sewage
treatment plant effluent, septic tank leakage, farm effluent, runoff from agricultural land and urban
stormwater (NCMA, 2007). Turbidity levels increase downstream and are highest in the mid
catchment in areas associated with cropping. Blue-green algal outbreaks are also common during
the summer months, and are attributed to the high levels of instream phosphorus (NCMA, 2007)
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Pesticides (including herbicides, pesticides and defoliants) in surface waters are a high profile issue
in the catchment. Pesticides are detected regularly in areas that are intensively cropped, although
levels have declined markedly in the last decade (NCMA, 2007).
In general, water quality of the Namoi river system is moderate to poor, with high levels of
nutrients, areas contaminated by agricultural chemicals as well as on-going salinity problems.
MONITORING SITE: Site #419026 Namoi River @ Goangra
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
633614
6664570
30.14288
148.3873
5.4.14. Ovens
5.4.14.1. Overview
The Ovens River region is in north-eastern Victoria and covers 0.7 % of the MDB (CSIRO,
2008o). This region contains the Ovens River and its major tributary the King River. The Ovens
River rises near Mount Buffalo in the Victorian Alps, and flows northwest to Wangaratta then
north to join the River Murray at Lake Mulwala. The King River joins the Ovens River at
Wangaratta.
The predominant land use in the region is dryland pasture using for beef and sheep grazing. Over
half of the region is covered with native vegetation, particularly in the highlands (CSIRO, 2008o).
This region generates around 6 % of the runoff within the MDB. The Ovens River is unregulated
upstream of Myrtleford and is only partly regulated due to the presence of storages on its
tributaries. The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced surface water availability by 27 %
(CSIRO, 2008o). Climate change is predicted to be less severe than the recent past, and is expected
to reduce surface water availability by 13 %.
5.4.14.2. Values
The Ovens River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental

Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. Only 59% of the predicted native fish species
were found and the community had lost much of its species richness. Alien fish were abundant
(Davies et al., 2008).
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


Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. The
communities at most sites were missing expected families and lacked most disturbancesensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Ovens Region is ‘Poor’ (Davies et al.,
2008).
Heritage River: The Ovens River is a Victorian Heritage River and is recognised as an
environmental asset of national importance due to its largely natural flow regime, diverse
aquatic habitats, range of threatened fish species and intact riparian zone.
Water Supply


Irrigation: This region uses approximately 0.2 % of the surface water diverted for irrigation
and 0.4 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. Instream storages in the upper catchment
include Lake Buffalo (Buffalo) and Lake William Hovell (King).
Stock and domestic: Diversions from the Ovens and King Rivers are used as the town water
supply for Wangaratta and other stock and domestic needs.
Tourism

The Ovens River region is used for swimming, fishing, camping and bushwalking.
5.4.14.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Ovens Region is under threat from:

Uncontrolled stock access;

Sand slugs from erosion;

Waste water treatment plant effluent and septic tank leakage;

Urban runoff;

Cold water releases from storages.
5.4.14.4. Water quality summary
The water quality in the Ovens River is in very good to excellent condition, but some tributaries
throughout the upper Ovens River have high turbidity levels and high nutrient concentrations due
to urban and agricultural practices (SKM, 2006c). The water quality in the Ovens River reflects the
primarily forested catchment, particularly in the uplands.
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The Ovens River has very low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Peechelba-East are 69 µS/cm and 101 µS/cm respectively. These EC
levels decreased during the recent dry period, with median and 80th percentile EC levels at 52 and
70 µS/cm respectively for 2007/08 (MDBA, 2009).
The turbidity levels are low and have been below 10 NTU on most sampling occasions over the last
five years (SKM, 2006c). The Victorian Alpine Bushfires in 2002-2003 burned a large portion of
the Ovens Region, which was followed by a large rain event that caused a slug of organic matter
rich bushfire runoff to degrade the water quality in the Buckland and Ovens River.
Nutrient levels are locally elevated near urban centres due to septic tank leakage and waste water
treatment plant effluent (SKM, 2006c). High nutrient levels have also been associated with the
bushfire runoff.
The main flow-related water quality issue in the Ovens River is low dissolved oxygen during
periods of sustained low flow. The duration of low flow periods has increased over the summer
months under drought conditions and increased demand on water resources during the summer
season (Cottingham et al., 2008).
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 90th percentile in river flows
corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below summaries the
trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on this historical
analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water quality dependent
values.

Table 5-8 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Ovens River
Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Climate Scenario
Wet Extreme Risks
(Low)
Water Quality
Trajectory
-pH
↓Salinity
↑Turbidity
↑Total phosphorus
↑Total nitrogen
↑ Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
Environmental
values (High)
Water Supply
values (Mod)
Recreational
Values (Mod)
-fish,
macroinvertebrates
-heritage river
-irrigation
-stock and
domestic
-primary contact
-secondary contact
-aesthetic values
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor, with the
exception of the
major rainfall
events post
bushfires, when the
threat is high.
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor, with the
exception of the
major rainfall
events post
bushfires, when the
threat is high.
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor, with the
exception of the
major rainfall
events post
bushfires, when the
threat is high.
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Dry Extreme Risks
(Low)
- pH
↑Salinity
↓Turbidity
↓Total phosphorus
↓Total nitrogen
↓ Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor.
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor.
Changes in water
quality condition
are expected to be
minor.
5.4.15. Paroo
5.4.15.1. Overview
The Paroo River region is located in south-western Queensland in the far north-west corner of the
MDB. It covers 3.4 % of the MDB (CSIRO, 2008p). It is an episodic stream and there is no flow
for around 35 % of the time (Davies et al., 2008). The Paroo River dissipates into a large deflation
area called the Paroo Overflow. This area contains significant wetlands that store the water that
supports a diverse ecosystem of international signficance. The river water rarely connects to the
Darling River.
The predominant land use in the region is broadacre livestock grazing for beef and wool production
(CSIRO, 2008p).
The Paroo River is the only unregulated rive r with the MDB. There are no major dams and very
little irrigation in the Paroo Region. The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the longterm historical climate (CSIRO, 2008p). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water
availability by 3 %. Climate change is also likely to affect the ecology of the wetlands in the
region.
5.4.15.2. Values
The Paroo River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental



Fish: The fish community is in moderate condition. Native fish were abundant, but only 58 %
of the predicted native fish species were found. (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in moderate condition. Most sites
retained their expected families, but were lacking some disturbance-sensitive families due to
drought.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Paroo Region is ‘Good’ (Davies et al.,
2008).
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
Ramsar-listed Wetlands: The Currawinya Lakes, including Lake Numulla and Lake Wyara, are
considered the most important wetlands in Australia, supporting up to 250,000 waterbirds. The
Paroo Overflow Lakes are also largely dependent on flooding from the Paroo River. This
includes the Paroo River Waterholes, the Paroo Distributary Channels and the Paroo Overflow
Lakes. The Paroo River Wetlands – a recently listed Ramsar site – are a combination of the
Nocoleche Nature Reserve and two of the many lakes in the Paroo Overflow. The lakes are on
the floodplain south of Wanaaring in New South Wales where floods typically dissipate
without reaching the Darling River.
Water Supply


Irrigation: There is little diversion from the Paroo and no instream storages. Groundwater use
is low and does not impact on streamflow.
Stock and domestic: Most of the region has access to the Great Artesian Groundwater Basin.
Tourism

The Paroo-Darling National Park is used for camping.
5.4.15.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Paroo Region is under threat from:

carp, goldfish and plague minnow is a critical issue;

Drought and drying of waterholes.;

land degradation due to over‐grazing;

clearing of marginal lands,

declining quality of river systems.
5.4.15.4. Water quality summary
The Paroo River is ephemeral and the flow regime is dominated by extended periods of no flow.
The persistence of waterholes with good water quality becomes of critical importance to sustaining
water-dependent life during the frequent and occasionally prolonged periods without flow. The
major water quality issues for the waterholes in the Paroo River region are low dissolved oxygen,
high temperatures, high pH (alkaline) and moderate nutrients (Bailey, 2001).
Nutrients accumulate and any disturbance to the ecology could result in algal blooms. Turbidity is
naturally high as a result of low plant cover and the intense nature of rainfall. There is a long travel
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time for flood waters, which could lead to evaporative losses and the assimilation of nutrients
(Bailey, 2001).
The Paroo River has low salinity levels. The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Caiwarro are 74 and 119 µS/cm respectively. EC levels have increased
during the recent dry period to give a median and 80th percentile of 81 and 172 µS/cm respectively
for 2007/08 (MDBA 2009b).
Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 50th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record due to lack of data) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 50th percentile in
river flows corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below
summaries the trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on
this historical analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water
quality dependent values.

Table 5-9 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Paroo River
Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Climate Scenario
Water Quality
Trajectory*
Wet Extreme Risks
(Mod)
↓pH
- Salinity
↑Turbidity
-Total phosphorus
-Total nitrogen
1
↓Dissolved oxygen
↑Temperature
Dry Extreme Risks
(Mod)
↑pH
-Salinity
↑Turbidity
-Total phosphorus
-Total nitrogen
1
↓ Dissolved oxygen
1
↑Temperature
Environmental
values (High)
Water Supply
values (low)
Recreational
Values (low)
-fish,
macroinvertebrates
-heritage river
-irrigation
-stock and
domestic
-primary contact
-secondary contact
-aesthetic values
Water quality
generally improves
when the river is
flowing, however
turbidity levels are
extremely high.
There is very little
diversion from the
river. High turbidity
levels may limit
water use.
Water quality
generally improves
when the river is
flowing, however,
turbidity levels are
extremely high.
As an ephemeral
There is very little
system, good water diversion from the
quality in refuge
river. High turbidity
pools is essential
levels may limit
for the survival of
water use. Algal
aquatic organisms.
blooms may
Dry extremes
present a health
hazard for stock.
present a risk from
low DO, high
turbidity and high
temperatures. Algal
growth is also an
1
issue .
*This assessment is based on limited data; (1) based on literature review – not data
Campers may find
water undesirable
due to high turbidity
and potential
toxicity from algal
blooms.
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5.4.16. Warrego
5.4.16.1. Overview
The Warrego River region is located in south-western Queensland and northern NSW. It covers
7 % of the MDB (CSIRO, 2008q). The Warrego River flows south to meet the Darling River
downstream of Bourke, but water only reaches the Darling during floods. It is an episodic stream
and there is no flow for around 50 % of the time (Davies et al., 2008).
The predominant land use in the region is dryland pasture, including beef cattle and sheep grazing,
and small areas of cotton farming and horticulture. Native vegetation, in the form of National Parks
and State Forests comprise 10 % of the region.
Rainfall and runoff are highly variable between years and stream flow mostly occurs as large
infrequent floods (CSIRO, 2008q). There are no major dams and only a small irrigated area in the
Warrego Region. The recent climate (1997-2006) has been similar to the long-term historical
climate (CSIRO, 2008q). Climate change is expected to reduce surface water availability by 6 %.
5.4.16.2. Values
The Warrego River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. Only half of the predicted native species were
recorded. Native fish were dominant in abundance, but alien species dominated the biomass
(Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in poor condition. Most sites had
few expected and disturbance sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Warrego Region is ‘poor’ (Davies et
al., 2008).
Important wetlands: Key ecological assets are the Warrego River Waterholes and Yantabulla
Swamp. The Warrego River Waterholes are a string of large, permanent and intermittent
waterholes and billabongs that provide habitat for fish, invertebrates, turtles and birds as well
as vegetation communities. Yantabulla Swamp support native vegetation communities and
provides breeding habitat for waterbirds under international treaties (CSIRO, 2008q).
Water Supply

Irrigation: There is little diversion from the Warrego River and no in-stream storages.
Groundwater use is low and does not impact on streamflow. At Cunnamulla, the Allan
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Tannock Weir may divert water for local cotton irrigation and town water supply (CSIRO,
2008q).

Stock and domestic: Weirs are used for stock and domestic supply along the Warrego River.
Tourism

Fishing, swimming, canoeing and camping occurs along the Warrego River, particularly at a
permanent waterhole at Bakers Bend.
5.4.16.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Warrego Region is under threat from:

Drought and drying of waterholes.;

Land degradation due to over‐grazing;

Clearing of marginal lands, and
Carp, goldfish and plague minnow.
5.4.16.4. Water quality summary
The Warrego River is ephemeral and the flow regime is dominated by extended periods of no flow
(up to 50 % of the time). Harsh, variable and ephemeral conditions have lead to a highly
specialised low diversity riverine ecology. During dry seasons, waterholes become enclosed
ecosystems and refugia for aquatic organisms. The persistence of these waterholes with good water
quality becomes of critical importance to sustaining water-dependent life during the prolonged
periods without flow. The major water quality issues for the waterholes in the Warrego River
region, similar to the Paroo Region, are low dissolved oxygen, high temperatures, high pH
(alkaline) and moderate nutrients (Bailey, 2001).
Nutrients accumulate and any disturbance to the ecology could result in algal blooms. Turbidity is
naturally high as a result of low plant cover and the intense nature of rainfall. There is a long travel
time for flood waters, which could lead to evaporative losses and the assimilation of nutrients
(Bailey, 2001).
The Warrego River has low salinity levels. The long-term 80th%ile electrical conductivity (EC)
level at Barringun is 123 µS/cm. The EC levels increased marginally to 139 µS/cm during the
recent dry period in 2007-08 (MDBA, 2009).
MONITORING SITE: Site # 423004 Warrego River @ Barringun
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5.4.17. Wimmera-Avoca
5.4.17.1. Overview
The Wimmera-Avoca River Region is in north-western Victoria and covers 4.3 % of the MDB. The
region is comprised of the Wimmera and Avoca Rivers. The rivers flow north from the Grampians
National Park into terminal lakes. The Wimmera River terminates at the Ramsar-listed sites Lake
Hindmarsh and Lake Albacutya, and the Avoca River flows into the Avoca Marshes and Lake
Boga.
The predominant land use in the region is dryland agriculture, primarily cereal cropping and
grazing. An extensive area is irrigated for cereal production and pasture for dairying, which is
supported by inter-valley transfers from the Glenelg River (CSIRO, 2008r).
The Wimmera and Avoca Rivers are highly regulated. Regulation throughout the region diverts
approximately 59 % of mean annual discharge for irrigation, stock and domestic use (CSIRO,
2008r). The recent climate (1997-2006) has reduced surface water availability and use by 50 %,
(CSIRO, 2008h). Climate change is predicted to be less severe than the recent climate, and is
expected to reduce surface water availability and use by 6 %.
5.4.17.2. Values
The Wimmera-Avoca River values that are dependent on good water quality are summarised
below.
Environmental




Fish: The fish community is in poor condition. The fish community has low abundance of
native fish and intrusion of alien species (Davies et al., 2008).
Macroinvertebrates: The macroinvertebrate community was in very poor condition. The
communities at most sites were impoverished and lacked many disturbance-sensitive families.
Ecosystem health: Overall river ecosystem health in the Wimmera-Avoca Region is ‘very
poor’ (Davies et al., 2008).
Ramsar-listed wetlands: Lake Hindmarsh and Lake Albacutya (Wimmera) and the Kerang
Lakes and Lake Bael Bael are Ramsar-listed sites in the region.
Water Supply

Irrigation: This region uses approximately 1.0% of the surface water diverted for irrigation and
0.1 % of the groundwater resource in the MDB. There are seven major storages on tributaries
of the Wimmera that supply irrigation water. There are no instream storages on the Avoca,
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apart from 12 low-level weirs that provide water supply during low flows. Farm dams support
irrigation in the upper reaches(Davies et al., 2008).

Stock and Domestic: Surface water diversions are primarily for stock and domestic use, but
also for urban supply and limited irrigation. Groundwater is also used for these purposes
(CSIRO, 2008r).
5.4.17.3. Threats
The water quality and flows in the Wimmera-Avoca Region is under threat from:

Dryland salinity;

Colonisation of the river channel by riparian vegetation;

Over‐utilisation of water resources;

Flow cessation in parts of the Wimmera and Avoca rivers;

Biodiversity decline;

River bank erosion and fragility; and

Algal blooms.
5.4.17.4. Water quality summary
The primary water quality issue in the Wimmera-Avoca region is high salinity levels due to saline
groundwater intrusion (SKM, 2002). The long-term median and 80th percentile electrical
conductivity (EC) levels at Quambatook on the Avoca River is 4,200 and 8,200 µS/cm respectively
(MDBA, 2009). Similarly, the Wimmera River has elevated EC with median and 80th percentile
levels at Horsham Weir of 1,248 and 1,712 µS/cm respectively, decreasing to 705 and 731
respectively during the recent dry period (2007-08) (MDBA, 2009;SKM, 2009b).
Significant increases in salinity can occur when flows drop below 10-20 ML/d (SKM, 2002).
Under these conditions, saline pools form. These saline pools are characterised by a salt-stratified
high density bottom layer that has low dissolved oxygen making it uninhabitable by fish and
macroinvertebrates. Low dissolved oxygen is a problem in particularly the Wimmera River during
low flow conditions (SKM, 2002).
Nutrient and turbidity levels are high owing to agricultural land-use practices in the region. Long
term water quality trends show increasing electrical conductivity, increasing total nitrogen,
increasing turbidity and decreasing dissolved oxygen, and that all of the water quality variables
were linked to recent prolonged drought conditions.
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Analysis of historical water quality conditions in this region has shown that general water quality
declines in ‘dry years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows corresponding to the water
quality record) and improves in ‘wet years’ (defined as the 10th percentile in river flows
corresponding to the water quality record) (see Appendix A). The table below summaries the
trajectories for each water quality parameter during wet and dry extremes based on this historical
analysis. It also describes the some potential consequences for the regional water quality dependent
values.

Table 5-10 Consequences of wet and dry extremes for water quality in the Wimmera
River Region based on analysis of historical data (see Appendix A)
Climate Scenario
Water Quality
Trajectory *
Environmental values
(High)
Water Supply values
(High)
-fish, macroinvertebrates
-irrigation
Wet Extreme Risks
(Med)
-pH
↓Salinity
↑Turbidity
↑Total nitrogen
↑Total phosphorus
- Dissolved oxygen
-Temperature
High turbidity levels will
reduce primary
productivity levels,
resulting in less food
resource for aquatic
organisms.
Extremely high turbidity
levels may increase
drinking water treatment
costs.
Dry Extreme Risks
(High)
↑ pH
↓Salinity
↓Turbidity
↑Total nitrogen
↑Total phosphorus
↓ Dissolved oxygen
↑Temperature
Low dissolved oxygen
and high water
temperatures may have
potentially lethal effects
on aquatic organisms.
Increasing salinity levels
may go beyond the
tolerance levels for some
species in saline pools in
the lower catchment.
Algal toxins and algal
biomass may cause
water to be unsuitable for
stock and domestic
drinking water, and also
clog infrastructure for
irrigation. Increasing
salinity levels also make
water unsuitable.
5.5.
Assets dependent on good water quality
5.5.1.
Environmental
The following listed wetlands have been listed as environmental assets in the MDB.

Table 5-11 Key environmental assets.
State
Asset Name
Qld
Culgoa River Floodplain
Qld / NSW
Lower Balonne Floodplain Channel System
NSW
Narran Lakes Nature Reserve
NSW
Lower Murrumbidgee Floodplain
NSW
Mid Murrumbidgee Wetlands
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NSW
Booligal Wetlands
NSW
Great Cumbung Swamp
NSW
Gwydir Wetlands
NSW
Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve - North
NSW
Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve - South
NSW
Goddard's Lease
NSW
Old Dromana (Big Leather)
NSW
Barmah-Milewa Forest
NSW
Fivebough-Tuckerbil Ramsar sites
NSW
Wilgara
NSW
Crinolyn
NSW
Lower Lachlan including Lake Brewster
NSW
Wyndella
Vic
Lower Goulburn Floodplains
Vic
Lake Albacutya
Vic
Kerang Wetlands
Vic / SA
Chowilla Floodplain including Lindsay and Wallpolla Islands
SA
Banrock Station Wetland complex
SA
Riverland
5.5.2.
Drinking water
There are 21 large, 31 medium and 129 small urban centres located in the Murray-Darling Basin –
a total of 181 urban centres. These are located mainly in the South Eastern edges of the basin.
In addition, many cities and rural localities source their water supply from the Basin, but are not
located within the Basin. The most notable of these cities include Adelaide in South Australia, and
Melbourne and Ballarat in Victoria. Table 5-8 lists some of the pipelines which supply urban
centres outside of the Basin.

Table 5-12 Pipelines which supply urban centres and rural localities outside of the
Basin.
State
South
1
Australia
Pipeline/pump
name
Off take point
Urban centres supplied
Morgan Pumps
Murray River
Hanson, Spalding, Helshaby, Port
Augusta, Whyalla, Woomera, Iron
Knob, Jamestown, Peterborough
Swan Reach
Pumps
Murray River
Barossa Valley, Lower North and
Yorke Peninsula
Mannum Pumps
Murray River
Torrens Valley and eastern foothills
Adelaide via the metropolitan
reticulation system through the Anstey
Hill Water Filtration Plant; can also
discharge into numerous reservoirs
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2
Victoria
Murray Bridge
Pumps
Murray River
Adelaide via the Onkaparinga River
channel and Mount Bold Reservoir,
and Summit Storage Water Treatment
Plant
Tailem Bend
Pumps
Murray River
Thirteen towns and a large agricultural
area
Wimmera-Mallee
3
pipeline
Murray River @ Swan Hill
Wimmera-Mallee reservoirs
7,000 rural customers and 36 towns
Goldfields
Superpipe
Links the Waranga Western
Channel near Colbinabbin, Lake
Eppalock, Bendigo’s Sandhurst
Reservoir and White Swan
Reservoir
Ballarat and Bendigo
Sugarloaf Pipeline
Goulburn River @ Yea
Melbourne
(1) http://www.sawater.com.au/SAWater/Education/OurWaterSystems/Pipelines.htm
(2) http://www.ourwater.vic.gov.au/programs/water-grid
(3) http://www.environment.gov.au/water/policy-programs/water-smart/projects/pubs/vic-wimmera-malleepipeline.pdf. Technically located within the MDB, the Wimmera catchment is rarely connected to the
Murray River by flows.
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Literature Review
6.
References
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Cottingham, P., Bennison, G., Dunn, R., Lidston, J. & Robinson, D. (1995) Algal bloom and
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CSIRO (2008g) Water Availability in the Lachlan. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
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CSIRO (2008h) Water Availability in the Loddon-Avoca. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2008i) Water Availability in the Macquarie-Castlereagh. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling
Basin Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2008j) Water Availability in the Moonie. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
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CSIRO (2008k) Water Availability in the Murray. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
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CSIRO (2008m) Water Availability in the Murrumbidgee. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
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CSIRO (2008n) Water Availability in the Namoi. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2008o) Water Availability in the Ovens. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
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Literature Review
CSIRO (2008p) Water Availability in the Paroo. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2008q) Water Availability in the Warrego. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2008r) Water Availability in the Wimmera. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin
Sustainable Yields Project - a report to the Australian Government.
CSIRO (2010) State of the Climate. (ed^(eds. Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Government
Davies, P., Harris, J. H., Hillman, T. & Walker, K. (2008) SRA Report 1: A report on the
Ecological Health of Rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin, 2004-2007. (ed^(eds. Prepared
by the Independent Sustainable Rivers Audit Group for the Murray-Darling basin
Ministerial Council.
DEWHA (2009) Australian Natural Resources Atlas, 2000-2002 National Land and Water
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Dunlop, M. & Brown, P. R. (2008) Implications of climate change for Australia's national reserve
system: a preliminary assesment. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems report to the
Department of Climate Change and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
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GBCMA (2003) Goulburn Broken Regional Catchment Strategy. (ed^(eds. Goulburn Broken
Catchment Management Authority.
Gehrke, P. C., Gawne, B. & Cullen, P. (2003) What is the status of river health in the MurrayDarling basin? (ed^(eds. A publication of CSIRO Land and Water Australia.
Gell, P. & Little, F. (2007) Water quality history of Murrumbidgee River Floodplain Wetlands.
(ed^(eds. Land and Water Australia, Australian Government.
Hargrave, C. W., Gary, K. P. & Rosaldo, S. K. (2009) Potential effects of elevated atmospheric
carbon dioxide on benthic autotrophs and consumers in stream ecosystems: a test using
experimental stream mesocosms Global Change Biology, 2779-2790.
Howitt, J., Baldwin, D. S., Rees, G. S. & Williams, J. L. (2007) Modelling blackwater: predicting
water quality during flooding of lowland river forests. Ecological Modelling, 203, 229242.
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sheet for Macquarie 2100, Trangie, NSW.
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change and land use change on water resources in the Murray Darling Basin: Overview and
Draft Program of Research. (ed^(eds. CSIRO Atmospheric Research.
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Authority.
Lintermans, M. (2007) Fishes of the Murray Darling Basin: An introductory guide. (ed^(eds.
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LREFSP (2002) Environmental flow determination of the Loddon River catchment. Part A - Issues
Paper. (ed^(eds. A report prepared by the Loddon River Environmental Flows Scientific
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McCarthy, B., Conalin, A., D'Santos, P. & Baldwin, D. S. (2006) Acididication, salinisation and
fish kills at an inland wetland in south-eastern Australia following partial drying. Ecology
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of Lake Eppalock. (ed^(eds. Kaiela Fisheries Research Station - Department of
Conservation, Forests and Lands Victoria, Shepparton.
McGuckin, J. (2001) Fish kill in the Campaspe River at Elmore, January 2001. (ed^(eds, pp. 4.
Streamline Research Pty Ltd.
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MDBC (2008) Sustainable Rivers Audit. Murray-Darling Basin Rivers: Ecosystem Health Check,
2004-2007. (ed^(eds. Murray-Darling Basin Commission
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NCMA (2007) Namoi Catchment Action Plan. (ed^(eds. Namoi Catchment Management
Authority.
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SKM (2005) Temperature monitoring of dam releases in Victorian rivers 2002-2004. (ed^(eds.
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SKM (2006a) Campaspe River environmental FLOWS assessment: issues paper final. (ed^(eds.
Report prepared for the North Central CMA, Melbourne.
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report prepared by Sinclair Knight Merz for the North East CMA.
SKM (2009a) Implications of climate change for natural resource management in the MurrayDarling Basin: Part 1: A collation of recent research. (ed^(eds. A report prepared by
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prepared by SKM for Murray-Darling Basin Authority.
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sediment supply to Moreton Bay, Southeast Queensland, Australia. Journal of
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assessment, conservation and restoration. Hydrobiologia, 431, 107-114.
Walsh, C. J., Roy, A. H., Feminella, J. W., Cottingham, P. D., Groffman, P. M. & Morgan, R. P.
(2005) The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal
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turnover. Ecological Applications, 9, 1359-1376.
Groundwater References:
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in the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Region.
Allen, D., Mackie, D., Wei, M. (2004) Groundwater and climate change: a sensitivity analysis for
the Grand Forks aquifer, southern British Columbia, Canada.
Beare, S., Heaney, A. (2002) Climate change and water resources in the Murray Darling Basin,
Australia. ABARE Conference Paper 02.11
Brouyere, S., Carabin, G., Dassargues, A. (2004) Climate change impacts on groundwater
resources: modelled deficits in a chalky aquifer, Geer basin, Belgium.
Connor, J., Doble, R., Elmahdi, A. (2008) Integrated systems evaluation of climate change and
future adaptation strategies for the Lower River Murray, Australia. 2nd International
Salinity Forum, Salinity, water and society-global issues, local action.
CSIRO (2008). Water availability in the Murray-Darling Basin. A report to the Australian
Government from the CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project. CSIRO,
Australia. 67pp.
DECC 2009. Salinity Audit – Upland catchments of the NSW MDB.
Ficklin, D., Luedeling, Eike., Zhang, Minghua. (2010) Sensitivity of groundwater recharge under
irrigated agriculture to changes in climate, CO 2 concentrations and canopy structure.
Agricultural Water Management.
Gleick, P. (2000) Water: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for the
Water Resources of the United States.
Ivkovic, K.M., Watkins, K.L., Cresswell, R.G., & Bould, J. (2001). A groundwater quality
assessment of the Upper Shepparton Formation Aquifers: Cobram Region, Victoria.
Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.
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John, M., Pannell, D., and Kingwell, R., 2005. Climate Change and the Economics of Farm
Management in the Face of Land Degradation: Dryland Salinity in Western Australia.
Kuo-Chin, Hsu., Chung-Ho, Wang., Kuan-Chih, Chen., Chien-Tai, Chen., Kai-Wei, Ma. (2007)
Climate-induced hydrological impacts on the groundwater system of the Pingtung Plain,
Taiwan. Hydrogeology Journal, 15: 903 – 913.
Moustadraf, J., Razack, M., Sinan, M. (2008) Evaluation of the impacts of climate changes on the
coastal Chaouia aquifer, Morocco, using numerical modelling. Hydrogeology Journal
(2009) 16: 1411-1426.
Please, P.M., Watkins, K.L., Cresswell, R.G. and Bauld, J., (2000). A groundwater quality
assessment of the alluvial aquifers in the Border Rivers Catchment (Qld/NSW). Bureau of
Rural Sciences, Canberra.
SKM (2009) Adaptation options for climate change impacts on groundwater resources. Prepared
for the World Bank, February 2009.
Timms, W., Acworth, I., Jankowski, J., & Lawson, S. (1999). Groundwater quality in a aquifer
aquitard system subjected to large volume abstraction for irrigation in the Lower
Murrumbidgee. In Murray-Darling Basin Groundwater Workshop .Integrated
Perspectives., Griffith, pp. 131.136.
Walker, G., Gilfedder., M and Williams., J. 1999. Effectiveness of current farming systems in the
control of dryland salinity. Canberra: CSIRO Land and Water.
Watkins, K.L. and Bauld, J. (1999) A groundwater quality assessment of the shallow aquifers of
the Murray Region, NSW. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.
Watkins, K.L., Ivkovic, K.M. and Bauld, J. (1999) A groundwater quality assessment of the
Goulburn Catchment, Victoria: Nagambie-Mangalore. Bureau of Rural Sciences,
Canberra.
Watkins, K.L., Ivkovic, K.M. and Bauld, J. (1999). A groundwater quality assessment of the
Goulburn Catchment, Victoria: Kyabram-Tongala. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.
Woldeakmlak, S., Batelaan, O., Smedt, F. (2007) Effects of climate change on the groundwater
system in the Grote-Nete catchment, Belgium.
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a. Barwon-Darling
MONITORING SITE: Site #425008 Darling River: Wilcannia (Main Channel)
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
725940 6505891 31.55986 143.3804
The site is located next to the township of Wilcannia, in flat, arid and sparsely vegetated countryside.
The town garbage depot, caravan park and golf course are nearby, and slaughter yards are a short
distance downstream. Dryland grazing is the dominant land use in the catchment. The site is sampled as
part of MDBA's Menindee Lakes Water Quality Monitoring Program.
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b. Border Rivers
MONITORING SITE: Site #416001 Barwon River: Mungindi
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
693389 6793025 28.97611 148.9847
This site is located downstream of Mungindi, in flat, open countryside supporting scattered timber
growth. Large-scale cotton irrigation occurs both upstream and downstream of Mungindi, and in areas
of cattle grazing that are not under cotton. The site is sampled as part of DLWC's Statewide Key Sites
Water Quality Trend Assessment Program (DEWHA, 2009).
c. Moonie Region
MONITORING SITE: Site #417204 Moonie R @ Fenton
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d. Murrumbidgee Region
MONITORING SITE: Site #410130 Murrumbidgee at D/S Balranald Weir
Easting
Northing
Latitude
Longitude
728333
6161264
34.66528
143.4919
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e. Ovens Region
MONITORING SITE: Site #403241 Ovens River at Peechelba-East.
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a. Paroo Region
MONITORING SITE: Site #424201 Paroo River at Caiwarro
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a. Wimmera
MONITORING SITE: Site # 415200; Wimmera River at Horsham
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