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Guide to Operating Systems,
th
5 Edition
Chapter 9
Configuring a Network
Connection
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain the fundamentals of network
communication
• Define common networking terms
• Compare and describe network device types
• Configure and describe network protocols
• Describe the OSI model of networking
• Configure networking in an operating system
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The Fundamentals of Network
Communication
• A computer network consists of two or more
computers connected by some kind of transmission
medium
– Such as a cable or air waves
• In order to access the Internet, a computer has to
be able to connect to a network
• The next few slides will cover what is required to
turn a standalone computer into a networked
computer
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Network Components
• Hardware components needed
– Network interface card (NIC)—an add-on card
plugged into an expansion slot that provides a
connection between the computer and the network
– Network medium—A cable that plugs into the NIC
and makes the connection between a computer and
the rest of the network
• Network media can also be the air waves, as in
wireless networks
– Interconnecting device—allows two or more
computers to communicate on the network without
having to be connected directly to one another
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Network Components
Figure 9-1 A network of computers connected to a switch
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Network Computers
• Software Components
– Network clients and servers
• Network client software requests information stored
on another network computer or device
• Network server software allows a computer to share
its resources
– Protocols—define the rules and formats a computer
must use when sending information across the
network
– NIC device driver—receives data from protocols and
forwards this data to the physical NIC
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Steps of Network Communication
• 1. Application tries to access a network resource by
sending a message
• 2. Client software formats the message and passes
the message on to the network protocol
• 3. Protocol packages the message in a format
suitable for the network and sends it to the NIC
driver
• 4. NIC driver sends data in the request to the NIC
card to be converted into necessary signals to be
transmitted on the network
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Layers of the Network Communication
Process
• Each step required for a client to access network
resources is referred to as a “layer”
• Each layer has a task and all layers work together
Figure 9-2 Layers of the network communication process
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Layers of the Network Communication
Process
Table 9-1 Layers of the network communication process
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How Two Computers Communicate on
a LAN
• TCP/IP is the most common protocol (language)
used on networks
• TCP/IP uses 2 addresses to identify devices
– Logical address (IP address)
– Physical address (MAC address)
• Just as a mail person needs an address to deliver
mail, TCP/IP needs an address in order to deliver
data to the correct device on a network
• Think of the Logical address as a zip code and the
Physical address as a street address
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How Two Computers Communicate on
a LAN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A user at Comp A types ping 10.1.1.2
at a command prompt
Network software creates a ping
message
The network protocol packages the
message by adding IP address of
sending and destination computers
and acquires the destination
computer’s MAC address
The network interface software adds
MAC addresses of sending and
destination computers
Comp B receives message, verifies
that the addresses are correct and
then sends a reply to Comp A using
Steps 2 – 4
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Figure 1-7 Communication
Figuretwo
9-3computers
Communication
between
between two computers
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How Two Computers Communicate on
a LAN
Table 9-2 Saving a file with the network communication process
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Network Terminology
• Every profession has its own language and
acronyms
• It is essential to know the language of networks to
be able to study them
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LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and
MANs
• Local area network (LAN) – small network, limited
to a single collection of machines and connected
by one or more interconnecting devices in a small
geographic area
Figure 9-4 A LAN with computers interconnected by a switch
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LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and
MANs
Figure 9-5 A wireless LAN
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LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and
MANs
• An internetwork is a networked collection of LANs
tied together by devices such as routers
• Reasons for creation:
– Two or more groups of users and their computers
need to be logically separated but still need to
communicate
– Number of computers in a single LAN has grown
and is no longer efficient
– The distance between two groups of computers
exceeds the capabilities of most LAN devices
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LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and
MANs
Figure 9-8 An internetwork with two LANs connected by a router
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LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and
MANs
• Wide area networks (WANs) use the services of
third-party communication providers to carry
network traffic from one location to another
• Metropolitan area networks (MANs) use WAN
technologies to interconnect LANs in a specific
geographic region, such as a county of city
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Internet, Intranet, and Extranet
• Internet: a worldwide public internetwork
– Uses protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP to transfer
and view information
• Intranet: a private internetwork in which devices
and servers are only available to those users
connected to the internal network
• Extranet: allows limited and controlled access to
internal resources by outside users
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Packets and Frames
• Computers transfer information across networks in
shorts bursts of about 1500 bytes of data
• Reasons data is transferred this way:
– If an error occurs during transmission of a large file, only the
chunks of data involved in the error have to be sent again
– Pause between bursts allows other computers to transfer
data during pauses
– Allows the receiving computer to process received data
– Allows the receiving computer receive data from other
computers at the same time
– Gives the sending computer an opportunity to receive data
from other computers and perform other processing tasks
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Packets and Frames
• Chunks of data sent across the network are usually
called packets or frames, with packets being the
more well-known term
• Packet: a chunk of data with a source and
destination IP address added to it
• Using the U.S. mail analogy, you can look at a
packet as an envelope that has had the zip code
added to the address but not the street address
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Packets and Frames
• Frame: a packet with the source and destination
MAC addresses added to it
– The packet is “framed” by the MAC addresses on
one end and an error-checking code on the other
• The process of adding IP addresses and MAC
addresses to chunks of data is called
encapsulation
• Information added to the front of the data is called
a header and information added to the end is called
a trailer
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Clients and Servers
• A client can be a workstation running a client OS
– Or it can refer to the network software on a computer
that requests network resources from a server
• The word “client” is usually used in these three
contexts:
– Client operating system – the OS installed on a
computer
– Client computer – primary role is to run user
applications and access network resources
– Client software – software that requests network
resources from server software on another computer
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Clients and Servers
• A computer becomes a server when software is
installed on it that provides a network service to
client computers
• The term “server” is also used in three contexts:
– Server operating system – OS installed on a computer
designed to share network resources and provide other
network services
– Server computer – a computer’s primary role in the
network is to give client computers access to network
resources and services
– Server software – responds to requests for network
resources from client software
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
• A network model defines how and where resources
are shared and how access to these resources is
regulated
• Fall into two major types
– Peer-to-peer network – most computers function as
clients or servers (no centralized control over who
has access to network resources)
– Server-based network – certain computers take on
specialized roles and function mainly as servers, and
ordinary users’ machines tend to function mainly as
clients
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
• Computers on a peer-to-peer network can take
both a client and a server role
• Any user can share resources on his/her computer
with any other user’s computer
• Every user must act as the administrator of his/her
computer
– Can give everyone else unlimited access to their
resources or grant restricted access to other users
– Usernames and passwords (credentials) are used
to control that access
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
• Server-based allow centralized control over
network resources
• Users log on to the network with a single set of
credentials maintained by one or more servers
running a server OS
• In most cases, servers are dedicated to running
network services and should not be used to run
user applications
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
• A domain is a collection of users and computers
whose accounts are managed by Windows servers
called domain controllers
• Users and computers in a domain are subject to
network access and security policies defined by a
network administrator
– The software that manages this security is referred
to as a directory service.
– On Windows servers, the directory service software
is Active Directory
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
• Other network services found on network servers:
– Naming services – translate computer names to their
address
– E-mail services – manage incoming and outgoing
email
– Application services – grant client computers access
to complex applications that run on the server
– Communication services – give remote users access
to a network
– Web services – provide comprehensive Web-based
application services
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Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server
Networks
Table 9-3 Peer-to-peer versus server-based networks
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Network Device Fundamentals
• LANs, WANs, MANs, and internetworks are built
with a variety of network hardware
• This section covers a wide variety of network
devices
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Network Hubs
• A multiport repeater is just a repeater with several
ports to which you can connect cabling
– Also referred to as a hub
• Receives bit signals generated from a connected
computer on one of its ports
• Cleans the signal by filtering out electrical noise
• Regenerates the signal to full strength
• Transmits the regenerated signal to all other ports
a computer (or other network device) is connected
to
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Network Switches
• Looks just like a hub
– But a switch actually reads data in the message,
determines which port the destination device is
connected to, and forward the message to only that port
• Basic Switch Operation
– Data is sent onto the medium one frame at a time
– Each frame has the destination MAC address
– Switch reads the addresses:
• Keeps a record of which computer is on which port
(switching table)
• Forwards the frame to the port where the destination MAC
can be found
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Network Switches
Figure 9-14 Switches maintain a switching table
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Wireless Access Points
• The heart of a wireless network is the wireless
access point (AP)
• APs operate similarly to a hub without wires
• All communication passes through the AP
• Most small business and home networks use a
device typically called a wireless router that
combines the functions of an AP, a switch, and a
router
• Wireless LANs are usually attached to wired
networks
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Network Interface Cards
• Attaching a computer to a network requires a
network interface card (NIC) to create and
mediate the connection between a computer and
the networking medium
– Networking medium might be copper wire, fiber-optic
cable, or airwaves
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Network Interface Cards
• The tasks a NIC and its driver perform:
– Provide a connection from computer to medium
– Incoming messages: Receives bit signals and
assembles them into frames
• Verifies the destination address
• Removes frame header and sends the resulting
packet to the network protocol
– Outgoing messages: receive packets from network
protocol
• Creates frames by adding MAC addresses/error check
– Converts frame into bit signals suitable for the
medium and transmits them
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Network Interface Cards
Figure 9-15 The NIC handles incoming data from the network medium
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Network Interface Cards
Figure 9-16 The NIC handles outgoing data to be sent to the network medium
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Routers
• Most complex device
• Connect LANs together to create an internetwork
Figure 9-17 Two LANs connected by a router to make an internetwork
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Routers
• Routers are devices that enable multiple LANs to
communicate with one another by forwarding
packets from one LAN to another
Figure 9-18 Routers interconnect LANs to form the Internet
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Routers
• The following are the differences between routers
and switches
– Routers connect LANs, switches connect computers
– Routers work with logical (IP) addresses, switches
work with physical (MAC) addresses
– Routers work with packets, switches with frames
– Routers don’t forward broadcasts, switches do
– Routers use routing tables, switches use switching
tables
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Network Media
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – the most common
media type in LANs
– Consists of four pairs of copper wires twisted
together and contained in a plastic sheath or jacket
– Comes in numbered categories (up to Category 8)
• Higher the category, the higher the bandwidth
potential
– Used in physical star networks
– Maximum cable length from NIC to switch is 100
meters
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Network Media
Figure 9-19 UTP cabling
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Network Media
• Fiber-Optic Cabling
– Uses thin strands of glass to carry pulses of light
long distances at high data rates
Figure 9-20 Fiber-optic cabling
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Network Media
• Coaxial Cable
– Best known for its use in cable TV
– Obsolete as a LAN medium
– Used as the network medium for Internet access via
cable modem
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Network Protocol Fundamentals
• Protocols are rules and procedures for
communication and behavior
– Computers must “speak” the same language and
agree on the rules of communication
• When a set of protocols works cooperatively it is
called a protocol suite (or “protocol stack”)
• The most common protocol stack is Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
• TCP/IP is composed of more than a dozen
protocols operating at different levels of the
communication process
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Network Protocol Fundamentals
Figure 9-21 The TCP/IP layered architecture
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Network Protocol Fundamentals
 The Internetwork layer is where administrators
usually do the most network configuration
 Where the IP protocol operates and is the heart of
the TCP/IP protocol suite
 Responsible for four main tasks:




Defines and verifies IP addresses
Routes packets through an internetwork
Resolves MAC addresses from IP addresses
Delivers packets efficiently
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Internet Protocol Version 4
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) or just IP
– An internetwork layer protocol that provides source
and destination addressing and routing for the
TCP/IP protocol suite
• IP addresses are 32-bit numbers divided into four
8-bit values called octets, each octet can have a
value from 0 to 255
– Four decimal numbers are separated by periods in a
format called dotted decimal notation
– Example: 172.31.149.10
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Internet Protocol Version 4
• Subnet masks are also 32-bit numbers, that serve
to determine how many bits are allocated to a
network ID, and how many are allocated to a host
ID
• When written in binary, 1’s in the subnet mask that
correspond to bits in the IP address mean the
matching bit locations are part of the network ID
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Internet Protocol Version 4
• Example:
– 192.168.14.250 =
11000000.10101000.0001110.11111010
255.255.255.0 =
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
• Above shows 192.168.14.0 as the network ID, 250
as the host ID
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Internet Protocol Version 4
• IP Addresses are categorized in Classes A-E
– Only IP addresses in the A, B, and C classes are available for
host assignment
• Class A
– Value of the first octet is between 1 and 127
– IP registry assigns the first octet, leaving the last three octets to
be assigned to hosts
– Intended for large corporations and government
• Class B
– Value of the first octet is between 128 and 191
– IP registry assigns the first two octets, leaving the third and
fourth octets to be assigned to hosts
– Intended for use in medium to large networks
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Internet Protocol Version 4
• Class C
– Value of the first octet is between 192 and 223
– IP address registry assigns the first three octets
– These networks are limited to 254 hosts per network
– Intended for small networks
• Class D
– Value of the first octet is between 224 and 239
– Reserved for multicasting
• Class E
– Value of the first octet is between 240 and 255
– Reserved for experimental use and can’t be used for
address assignment
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Internet Protocol Version 4
Table 9-4 IPv4 address class summary
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Internet Protocol Version 6
• Originally named IPng (IP next generation), IPv6
was created in 1994 by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF)
• IPv6 includes the following improvements
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Larger address space
Hierarchical address space
Autoconfiguration
Built-in Quality of Server (QoS) support
Built-in support for security
Support for mobility
Extensibility
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Internet Protocol Version 6
• IPv6 addresses use128 bits, instead of IPv4’s 32
bits, for an address
• IPv6 addresses are written as eight 16-bit
hexadecimal numbers separated by colons:
– Fe80:0:0:0:18ff:0024:8e5a:60
– Things to note about IPv6 addresses:
• One or more consecutive 0 values can be written as a
double colon, but only one double colon can exist in
an IPv6 address
• Leading 0s are optional
• Hexadecimal numbers are easier to convert to binary
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Introducing the OSI Model of
Networking
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model proposed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) provides a common
framework for developers and students of
networking to work with and learn from
• OSI model is not specific to any protocol suite and
can be applied to most networking protocols
• OSI model is a seven-layer organization of how
data travels from place to place on any given
network
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Structure of the OSI Model
Figure 9-23 The seven layers of the OSI reference model
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Structure of the OSI Model
• Each layer in the OSI model has its own set of welldefined functions
– The functions of each layer communicate and
interact with the layers immediately above and below
it
– Example: The Transport layer works with the
Network layer below it and the Session layer above
it
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Structure of the OSI Model
• The Application layer (Layer 7) provides
interfaces for applications to access network
services
– File sharing, message handling, and database
access
– Common protocols found at Layer 7 include HTTP,
FTP, SMB/CIFS, TFTP, and SMTP
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Structure of the OSI Model
• The Presentation layer (Layer 6) handles data
formatting and translation
• For outgoing messages
– Converts data into a format specified by the Application layer
• For incoming messages
– Reverses the conversion if required by the receiving application
• A software component known as a “redirector” operates
at this layer
– Intercepts requests for service from the computer, requests that
can’t be handles locally are redirected across the network to a
network resource that can handle the request
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Structure of the OSI Model
• Session layer (Layer 5) permits two computers to hold
ongoing communications, called a “session”
• This layer handles communication setup ahead of data
transfers and session teardown when the session ends
• Common network functions at this layer:
– Name lookup, user logon and logoff
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Structure of the OSI Model
• Transport layer (Layer 4) manages data transfer
from one application to another across a network
– By breaking data down into smaller chunks called
“segments”
• Segmenting data is important because every
network technology has a maximum frame size
called the maximum transmission unit (MTU)
• Includes flow control and acknowledgements to
ensure reliability
• Handles resequencing segments into the original
data on receipt
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Structure of the OSI Model
• The Network layer (Layer 3) handles logical
addressing, translates logical network addresses (IP
addresses) into physical addresses, and performs best
path selection and routing in an internetwork
• Software working at this layer include IP, ARP and
ICMP
• Routers operate at this layer
– As well as switches with routing capabilities, known as a
Layer 3 switch
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Structure of the OSI Model
• The Data Link layer (Layer 2) works with frames
and is the intermediary between the Network layer
and Physical layer
• Defines how computers access the network
medium (also called media access control)
– MAC address is defined at this layer
• The software component operating at this layer is
the NIC driver and hardware components include
NICs and switches
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Structure of the OSI Model
• The Physical layer (Layer 1) converts bits into
signals for outgoing messages and signals into bits
for incoming messages
– Wire media uses electrical pulses, fiber-optic uses
light pulses and wireless media uses radio waves
• Details for creating a physical network connection
are specified at this layer
– Example: type of connectors used to attach the
medium to the NIC
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Structure of the OSI Model
Table 9-5 OSI model summary
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Configuring Networking in an
Operating System
• Network configuration in an OS follows a similar
pattern as the steps in the network communication
process
• All functions of the network model must be
accounted for
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Configuring the Network Interface
• In most cases, you don’t have to configure the NIC
– If a NIC is installed, the OS will usually install the
proper driver
– May need to install a new or different driver if an
update becomes available
• Linux and Mac OS X offer configuration settings for
the network interface
– Use the command-line tool ethtool to display and
change network interface settings
– In Mac OS X, use the advanced settings in the
Network dialog box
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Configuring IPv4 Addresses
• Configuration of an IP address consists of the
following parts:
–
–
–
–
–
IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway
Preferred DNS server
Alternate DNS server
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Configuring IPv4 Addresses
• Rules for IP address assignment
– A host can be assigned only a Class A, Class B, or
Class C address
– Every IP address configuration must have a subnet
mask
– All hosts on the same physical network must share
the same network ID in their IP addresses
– All host IDs on the same network must be unique
– You can’t assign an IP address in which all the host
ID bits are binary 0
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Configuring IPv4 Addresses
• Rules for IP address assignment (cont’d)
– You can’t assign an IP address in which all the host
ID bits are binary 1
– Computers assigned different network IDs can
communicate only if a router is present to forward
packets
– The default gateway address assigned to a
computer must have the same network ID as that
computer
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Configuring an IPv4 Address in
Windows
• Windows is configured to obtain an IP address
automatically by default
– Using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
– Requests an IP address configuration from a DHCP
server
• If no DHCP server responds to the request the
computer assigns an automatic private IP
addressing (APIPA) address
– Always begins with 169.254 with 255.255.0.0 subnet
mask
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Configuring an IPv4 Address in
Windows
• Sometimes you may need to configure a static IP
address, which is manually configured
• Configure a static IPv4 address in Windows using a
GUI or the command line
– Use netsh to configure from a command line
• To configure an interface named Ethernet0:
– netsh interface ipv4 set address “Ethernet0” static
10.1.1.1 255.255.0.0
– Can include the default gateway by adding the
address to the end of the command
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Configuring an IPv4 Address in Linux
and Mac OS X
• To configure an IP address to an interface named
eth0, use the following command from the shell
prompt:
– ifconfig eth0 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.0.0
• To configure a default gateway in Linux, use the
route command:
– route add default gw 10.1.1.250
• Most Linux installations have a GUI tool for
configuring the IP address settings
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Configuring an IPv4 Address in Linux
and Mac OS X
Figure 9-28 Configuring an IP address in Linux
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Configuring IPv6 Addresses
• A computer with IPv6 enabled is always
automatically assigned a link-local IPv6 address
– Always begins with fe80 and is self-configuring
• IPv6 autoconfiguration occurs by two methods:
– Stateless autoconfiguration - the node listens for
router advertisement messages from a local router
– Stateful autoconfiguration - the node uses an
autoconfiguration protocol, such as DHCPv6, to
obtain its IPv6 address and other configuration
information
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Configuring IPv6 Addresses
Figure 9-30 The ipconfig command in Windows showing the link-local IPv6 address
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Summary
• Components needed to make a stand-alone
computer a networked computer include a NIC, a
network medium, and usually an interconnecting
device
• The layers of the network communication process
can be summarized as user application, network
software, network protocol, and network interface
• The terms used to describe networks of different
scope are LAN, Internetwork, WAN, and MAN
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Summary
• Packets and frames are the units of data handled
by different network components
• A client is the computer or network software that
requests network data and a server is the computer
or network software that makes the network data
available to requesting clients
• A peer-to-peer network model has no centralized
authority over resources while a server-based
network usually uses as directory service to
provide centralized resource management
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Summary
• LANs, WANs, MANs, and internetworks are built
with a variety of network hardware
• TCP/IP is the main protocol suite used in networks
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model for networking explains how
networks behave within an orderly, seven-layered
model for communication
• Network configuration in an OS follows a similar
pattern as the steps in the network communication
process, the TCP/IP model, and the OSI model
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