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Fluctuations In Student Interest: Observation And Reflection As the class progresses note down changes in student attention. Take note of the time, a brief description of what triggered the change and the changed level of attention (++ = very attentive, + = attentive, - = not very attentive, -- = un-attentive) Time Classroom events Student attention You must also write an essay of between 750 to 1,000 words to discuss the motivation theory that you learned versus what you observed in the classroom. Motivation Theories Essay Assignment IMPORTANT: Read this very carefully When you write your essay you must compare your classroom observation to the works of motivational theorists. This sheet contains a list of the main concepts proposed by experts in the field of motivation. Essay rules When you write your motivation essay: 1. You must put your name at the top of the essay. 2. You must put the date at the top of the essay. 3. Your essay must contain between 750 and 1,000 words. 4. Your essay must make references to the theories mentioned in this work sheet. 5. There must be clear evidence in your essay that you are comparing what you see in the classroom to the theories mentioned in this sheet. 6. You must include a bibliography of the experts you mention and source (web page) associated with the expert at the end of your essay. A list of author references you can use is shown at the end of this sheet. WARNING: Failure to meet any of these points will mean that your essay cannot be submitted for external moderation and you will not get your TESOL certificate from the ACADEMIC ADVISORY BOARD examination board. Abraham Maslow Source: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, training, and personal development. Maslow originally defined 5 motivation levels where level one shows the most basic of human needs which cause motivation. The original 5 levels have since been modified to 8 levels. These levels are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization. Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs. Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and drive always shift to next higher order needs. Levels 1 to 4 are deficiency motivators; level 5, and by implication 6 to 8, are growth motivators and relatively rarely found. The thwarting of needs is usually a cause of stress, and is particularly so at level 4. Examples in use: You can't motivate someone to concentrate on learning (levels 5) if they feel insecure in class (level 4). You can't expect someone to raise their own skill expectations (level 7) when they lack basic skills (level 5). Frederick Herzberg Source: http://www.businessballs.com/herzberg.htm Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000), clinical psychologist and pioneer of 'job enrichment', is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in management and motivational theory. Herzberg was the first to show that satisfaction and dissatisfaction when working nearly always arose from different factors, and were not simply opposing reactions to the same factors, as had always previously been (and still now by the unenlightened) believed. In 1959 Herzberg wrote the following, which helps explain this fundamental part of his theory, i.e., that the factors which motivate people are different to and not simply the opposite of the factors which cause dissatisfaction: "Job satisfiers deal with the factors involved in doing the job, whereas job dis-satisfiers deal with the factors which define the job context." Herzberg's research identified that true motivators were other completely different factors, notably: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. personal growth advancement responsibility the work itself recognition achievement When these 6 factors are satisfied, the person is truly motivated. David McClelland Source: http://www.businessballs.com/davidmcclelland.htm McClelland is chiefly known for his work on achievement motivation. David McClelland is most noted for describing three types of motivational needs. the need for achievement (n-ach) The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and therefore seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment. the need for authority and power (n-pow) The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige. the need for affiliation (n-affil) The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players. McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of these characteristics. Some people exhibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need, and this motivational or needs 'mix' consequently affects their behaviour and working/managing style. McClelland suggested that a strong n-affil 'affiliation-motivation' undermines a teacher's objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that this affects a teacher's decision-making capability. A strong n-pow 'authority-motivation' will produce a determined work ethic and commitment, and while n-pow people are attracted to the leadership role, they may not possess the required flexibility and people-centred skills. McClelland argues that n-ach people with strong 'achievement motivation' make the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much in the belief that they are all similarly and highly achievement-focused and results driven, which of course most people are not. McClelland suggested other characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people: achievement is more important reward. achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving praise or recognition. rewards are regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in themselves. security is not prime motivator, nor is status. feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual). achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing things better. achievement-motivated people will logically favour tasks that naturally satisfy their needs. David Ausubel Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/subsumption-theory.html David Ausubel was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on the learning of school subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student already knows as being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns next. Ausubel viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your environment. Learners seek to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new knowledge with that which they have already learned. According to Ausubel, students are forever integrating new material into their cognitive structures by seeking to make connections between the new information and that which they already know. This is a naturally occurring process; it is how we make sense of the world and how we learn. It is not necessary that a student be motivated in order for this process to work. It is just how our brains function. Motivation is not such a big deal for Ausubel. Certainly it is not a necessary precursor for learning to occur. If anything, motivation is more a result or outcome of instruction rather than a cause of it. He would never say anything like, "You have to motivate your students to learn." We naturally seek to integrate new information into our existing cognitive structures. Students don't require activities to increase their motivation. Ausubel was prescriptive with regards to how to develop effective lessons and instructional materials. This is built around his idea of subsumption, taking in new information and anchoring it to pre-existing contents within a student's cognitive structure. If we conduct lessons as Ausubel suggests, then motivation is not an issue. In fact, motivation will follow from a well-conducted lesson. Ausubel would have us pay attention to following his instructional prescriptions, not to motivation. If students are taught as he envisions, then motivation will not be an issue. Albert Bandura Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-learning.html Albert Bandura is a contemporary learning theorist who went beyond the strict behavioral focus to document how people learn vicariously from observation of others. Bandura noted that our behavior is changed when we see a person take a specific action and be rewarded for that action. In the future we are more likely to take that same action. This is vicarious learning in which we learn through imitation rather than through direct reinforcement. Bandura’s theory is referred to social-cognitive learning theory. Bandura indicated that motivation had more of an effect on our actions than our learning. Thus, he would not use reinforcers in the same way as a behaviorist such as Skinner. Several factors can influence the motivation of students. One important factor is the student's self-efficacy. Bandura has repeatedly shown that when students have high self-efficacy for a certain learning task, they will put forth more effort to accomplish this task. They will work harder and persist longer with this learning task. As a result they are more likely to be successful than students with lower self-efficacy. Self-efficacy has a motivating effect on students. Bandura recognizes that our motivation is effected by others through vicarious experiences. If we observe someone put forth effort to accomplish something, achieve it and be rewarded as a result, then this act of observation motivates us to engage in that practice. Our motivation is increased through the vicarious experiences of observing others. Indeed, if you think about it, this is the basis for most advertising. Companies motivate us to buy their products or services by showing someone use their product or service and the satisfying result that follows. The model selects a certain type of toothpaste or clothing and then he or she becomes more interesting to others. Bandura would have teachers ensure that there are opportunities for students to observe effective models who are reinforced for taking the desired actions. Teachers should also encourage students as a way to enhance their self-efficacies and thus improve their learning. Jerome Bruner Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist.html Bruner views people as being active in the process of learning, continually structuring and restructuring their environment. Thus, he is quite opposed to the view of the passive learner mechanically associating stimuli and responses. Instead, Bruner believes that people selectively perceive certain aspects of their environment, represent those perceptions internally, and then act on those internal representations. Bruner has written about the course of cognitive development in which a child progressively develops three modes of representation: enactive, iconic, and symbolic. To be successful, the mode of instruction should match the mode that the learner is using. Bruner sees motivation as essential for learning – a necessary precondition. However, he does not want to use extrinsic motivators such as rewards. Rather Bruner wants the motivation to be intrinsic arising within the students. Bruner would not be inclined to motivate students with the promise of stars, good grades, extra time for recess, extra points or any kind of a reward like behaviorists would. For Bruner, these external rewards hinder intrinsic motivation and true learning. Bruner would activate intrinsic motivation by letting the students have a say in what they study and how they go about studying. He would stress building lessons around students' natural curiosity so as to ensure high levels of intrinsic motivation. A key aspect of Bruner's view on instruction is discovery learning. He favors discovery learning because he believes this results in more learning how to learn and more problem solving, which are the major outcomes schools should seek according to Bruner. Another advantage of discovery learning is that it produces higher levels of intrinsic motivation. By engaging students in a discovery learning environment, you come closer to ensuring that students will be inherently motivated to learn. Bruner suggest that we stay from direct instruction, that we avoid lecturing, and instead place students in a discovery learning environment working on problems that interest them. Robert Gagne Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html Robert Gagne was an experimental psychologist who was concerned with learning and instruction for several decades. His earlier work was in a behaviorist tradition, but later he was influenced by the information-processing view of learning and memory. He is well known for his synthesis of research on learning and the identification of internal and external conditions of learning.Gagne bases his view of motivation on the concept of competence. He believes that we all seek to become more capable, so in a sense learning becomes its own reward. Because of his early behavioral roots, Gagne sees a role for reinforcement in promoting motivation. To increase a student's level of motivation, Gagne would appeal to that student's sense of becoming more capable following instruction. In a sense, this is similar to giving the student the objectives for a lesson and point out explicitly what the student will be able to do when he or she completes the lesson. Gagne would also appeal more broadly to the sense of success and its benefits that will follow to establish expectancy for what will happen when a student is successful in a lesson. He would also stress the practical application of what will be learned as a way to further motivate students. This diagram shows Gagne's 9 Instructional Events that form the basis of any lesson. The first instructional event is "gain the learner's attention". Some assume incorrectly that this is how Gagne handles motivation. This is not the case. The purpose of "gain the learner's attention" is simply to get the learner's attention so that he or she will hear and see the rest of the lesson. It is not to motivate the learner. That is a separate matter. B. F. Skinner Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning.html B.F. Skinner is perhaps the predominant figure in American psychology. He is an experimental psychologist at Harvard who has developed behaviorism as a position in learning (he remains hesitant to use the term “theory”). Skinner emphasizes observable behavior in the study of humans—hence the term “behaviorism.” He rejects any attempt at introspection or use of hypothetical internal processes or structures to account for learning. Instead, Skinner uses the consequences of a behavior to explain why the behavior continues or fades. Skinner was forever the behaviorist who would not speculate on any internal process because they are unobservable. So for Skinner motivation must be defined in behavioral terms, not as some internal drive or desire. Thus, Skinner does not deal with intrinsic motivation. He simply focuses on observable behavior and what increases it. You recall that for Skinner behavior that is followed by a reinforcer is increased. He has no need to talk about motivation separately. If you want a behavior to increase, make sure it is reinforced. That's the whole of the matter to him. He does not see that talking about motivation adds anything to our understanding. Simply put, if you want to motivate students to do something, you define those specific behaviors and then provide reinforcers following the behaviors. There is nothing more to the deal in Skinner's view. Lev Vygotsky Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-development.html Vygotsky thought that the social world played a primary role in cognitive development. He saw language as a major tool not only for communications but also for shaping individual thought. He started cognition within a historical and cultural framework because he believes that was the only way that cognition could be understood. Vygotsky placed an emphasis on social and cultural aspects of learning. Certain aspects of Vygotsky's work have influenced education, especially his concept of the zone of proximal development. Many current constructivist ideas about instruction find their roots in Vygotsky. Vygotsky believes that motivation is somewhat important for learning, but not essential. We can enhance students' motivation by selecting problems that are interesting to the students as the basis of instruction. Further, teachers can ensure the cultural relevance and appropriateness of the curriculum and instructional activities. The “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) is a key concept of Vygotsky. This states that learning is optimal when students are working at those tasks in the ZPD, i.e. those tasks they can't accomplish on their own but can when working with a more knowledgeable other. Motivation is also optimal when students are working on tasks within their ZPDs. So it would be important for teachers to monitor students to ensure they are working within their ZPD as a way to promote sufficient motivation for learning. A task that is appropriately challenging will be motivating. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. Jean Piaget Source: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/genetic-epistemology.html Piaget's proposed principles of equilibration, assimilation, accommodation, and schema formation. Piaget proposes that children possess an inherent desire to maintain a sense of organization and balance in their conception of the world (equilibration). A sense of equilibration may be experienced if a child assimilates a new experience by relating it to an existing scheme, or the child may accommodate by modifying an existing scheme if the new experience is too different. In addition, individuals will repeatedly use new schemes because of an inherent desire to master their environment. This explains why young children can, with no loss of enthusiasm, sing the same song, tell the same story, and play the same game over and over and why they repeatedly open and shut doors to rooms and cupboards with no seeming purpose. It also explains why older children take great delight in collecting and organizing almost everything they can get their hands on and why adolescents who have begun to attain formal operational thinking will argue incessantly about all the unfairness in the world and how it can be eliminated. Bibliography Below are the references you must include in your bibliography for citations you make for each author. Author Reference to include for each author’s citation – copy and paste them Abraham Maslow Businessballs.com (1940) Abraham Maslow - Hierarchy of needs and diagrams of Maslow's motivational theory - pyramid diagrams of Maslow's theory. [online] Available at: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm Frederick Herzberg Businessballs.com (2000) Frederick Herzberg - Motivational theory, motivators and hygiene factors, free herzberg diagrams. [online] Available at: http://www.businessballs.com/herzberg.htm David McClelland Businessballs.com (1941) David McClelland - Achievement motivation needs theory. [online] Available at: http://www.businessballs.com/davidmcclelland.htm David Ausubel Instructionaldesign.org (1968) David Ausubel - Subsumption theory. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/subsumption-theory.html Albert Bandura Instructionaldesign.org (1973) Albert Bandura - Social learning theory. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/sociallearning.html Jerome Bruner Instructionaldesign.org (1990) Jerome Bruner - Constructivist theory. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist.html Robert Gagne Instructionaldesign.org (1992) Robert Gagne - Conditions of learning. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html B. F. Skinner Instructionaldesign.org (1950) B. F. Skinner - Operant conditioning. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operantconditioning.html Lev Vygotsky Instructionaldesign.org (1962) Lev Vygotsky - Social development theory. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/socialdevelopment.html Jean Piaget Instructionaldesign.org (1982) Jean Piaget - Genetic epistemology. [online] Available at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/geneticepistemology.html Additional material McLeod, S. (2011) Albert Bandura | Social Learning Theory. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html McLeod, S. (2008) Jerome Bruner. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html McLeod, S. (2010) David Kolb | Learning Styles. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html McLeod, S. (2009) Jean Piaget | Cognitive Stages of Development. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html McLeod, S. (2007) B. F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html McLeod, S. (2007) Lev Vygotsky. [online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html