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Chapter 31
The Rise of a New Conservatism
Mike Day, Grace Febrin, Amy Kodrich, Jenna Williams
The Tempting of Richard Nixon
Following the campaign of 1968, Richard Nixon’s presidency proved to be one of
the most controversial in American history.
Vice-President, George Jones
His policies had limited success, but through his diplomacy broke new grounds in
relations with China and the Soviet Union and ended American fighting in
Vietnam.
However he was forced to resign the presidency due to the Watergate scandal
Nixon’s domestic goals
Pragmatic Liberalism
In the beginning of Nixon’s presidency, he promised the nation peace and respite from the chaos of the 1960s,
stating in his inaugural address, “We cannot learn from one another…until we stop shouting at one another…
until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.”
Instead of trying to overthrow the Great Society, he focused on making the federal bureaucracy function more
efficiently. In some areas he expanded federal programs and responsibilities.
He approved the creation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, he
oversaw the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Signed the Clean Air Act, and
was the first president to adopt affirmative Action.
He developed the concept of revenue sharing by which federal funds were dispersed to state, county, and city
agencies to meet local needs. 1972, he signed a law that shared 30 billion with local governments over a
five-year period.
Action by congress and the johnson administration had ensured that massive desegregation of southern
schools, delayed for more than a decade by legal action, would begin. Nixon, with
the help of his
attorney general, John Mitchell, decided to shift the responsibilities for this
process to the courts.
Nixon’s domestic policies was to extend the welfare state in some areas, reshape it in others, and leave liberals
and conservatives alike wondering just where Nixon stood.
John Mitchell
Detente
Nixon’s Foreign policy was his main pride and joy. He was determined to
improve the state of the world. To assist him he appointed Henry Kissinger to be
national security adviser.
Detente- Improve relations with Russia.
Kissinger, a refuge from Nazi Germany, became a professor of government in Harvard,
the author of several influential books, and an acknowledged authority on international
affairs.
Nixon and Kissinger approached foreign policy from a practical, realistic perspective.
Saw the cold war as a traditional great power rivalry, one to be managed and controlled
rather than to be won.
Due to the Vietnam War and the rapid Soviet arms buildup of the 1960s, had
destroyed America’s primacy in in the world, and planned a retreat. Russia
had a strong military strength, but weak economy, and a rivalry in China.
Nixon planned to use American trade to induce Soviet cooperation, while
at the same time improving Chinese relations.
Henry Kissinger
The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks- Were two rounds of bilateral conferences and corresponding
international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union on the issue of armament control.
May 1972- Nixon signed two documents with the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. The
first document
limited the two superpowers to two hundred antiballistic missiles apiece. The second
froze the number of offensive ballistic missiles for a five-year period.
The SALT I agreements were most important as a symbolic first step toward control of
the nuclear arms race.
The main reason the U.S wanted to remain close with China was because of China’s
large population and important economic market
Ending the Vietnam war
Nixon had a three part plan to to end the conflict
1. gradual withdrawal of american soldiers
2. Accompanied by training of South Vietnamese forces to take over the combat role
3. renewed bombing
4. A hard line in negotiations with Hanoi.
The number of American soldiers in Vietnam went from 540,000 in early 1969 to less than 30,000 by 1972.
Domestic opposition to the war declined sharply with the drop in casualties and reductions in the draft call
Renewed bombing was the most controversial part of the plan. Spring 1969, Nixon secretly ordered raids on communist supply
lines in neutral Cambodia.
April 1970, He ordered both air and ground strikes into Cambodia, causing a massive outburst of antiwar protest at home.
Students were against the invasion of Cambodia and riots broke out. Tragedy struck at Kent State
University in Ohio in early May. Rioters had firebombed an ROTC building and after, the
governor sent in national guard troops, many who were taunted and harassed by students. The
guards then open fired killing four students and eleven wounded. Nixon felt little sympathy for
the demonstrators.
Negotiation with Hanoi proved to be successful beginning in the summer of 1969. Kissinger had held secret meetings with North
Vietnam’s foreign minister Le Duc Tho. By the Fall of 1972, the two sides neared agreement, but South Vietnamese objections
blocked a settlement before the 1972 election.
When North Vietnamese tried to make last minute plans, Nixon ordered a series of heavy B-52 raids on Hanoi that led to a truce
on January 27, 1973. In return for the release of all American prisoners of war, the U.S agreed to remove its troops from South
Vietnam within sixty days.
The Watergate Scandal
Nixon had feared leaks, intentional disclosure of secret information, and when leaks did occur, Nixon demand they be stopped.
The White House established an informal office of covert surveillance, “the plumbers.” It started out by investigating the national
security breaches but, during the presidential campaign of 1972, turned into Nixon spying onto his Democratic opponents and
engaging in dirty political tricks.
Five of the “plumbers” were arrested in June 1972 during a break in at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at
the Watergate office complex in Washington. Nixon personally ordered the cover-up. “ I want you to stonewall it, let them plead
the fifth amendment, cover-up, or anything else.” Nixon told John Mitchell.
The cover up succeeded long enough to ensure Nixon’s win over Democrat George S. Mcgovern, that was perceived as an antiestablished candidate.
In an effort to deflect growing criticism, Richard Nixon released edited
transcripts of
his Oval Office tape recordings in April 1974. With their suspicious gaps
and the frequent
invoking of "expletive deleted", the transcripts failed to win the
president public sympathy.
The first to speak was James McCord, one of the watergate burglars. He was sentenced to as long jail time by Judge John Sirica.
McCord asked for leniency, informing Sirica he had received money from the White House and had been promised
presidential pardon in return for his silence.
The committees discovery of the tape recordings of conversations in the Oval Office, proved to be the beginning of the end for
Nixon
Nixon tried to invoke executive privilege to withhold the tapes. When
Archibald Cox, who was appointed as
Watergate special prosecutor, demanded the release of the tapes, Nixon fired him. The new
Prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, continued to press Nixon to release the tapes.
Nixon’s two closest associates were H.R Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, who were both forced
to resign.
Nixon was charged with with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of congress.
The watergate scandal revealed strengths of the America’s basic governmental
The Economy of Stagflation
An outbreak of war in the Middle East threatened the United States’ access to cheap
and unrestricted oil.
This resulted in an energy crisis that helped to spark a massive price inflation that would have a huge
impact on the national economy.
The biggest challenge the Nixon administration would come to face would be the
bankruptcy of the Federal Reserve System.
War and Oil
October 6, 1973- Syria & Egypt launched a surprise attack on Israel
Fighting was caused by decades of tension between Israel and the Arab nations surrounding it
This tension had grown worse since the Israeli victory in the Six Days’ War of 1967.
During the Six Days’ War, the Israelis seized the Golan Heights from Syria, the Sinai
Peninsula from Egypt, and Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan.
The attack in 1973, caught Israel off guard causing them to lose the initiative and were forced to give
up the land they recovered.
This loss was because of the intervention of Nixon and Kissinger, who believed another Israeli
victory would destabilize the Middle East further.
This would come to be known as the Yom Kippur War (October War).
The Yom Kippur War would precipitate the Arab oil boycott of 1973-1974.
On October 17, the Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) announced a 5% cut in oil production and vowed additional
cuts of 5% each month until Israel surrendered their lands taken in 1967.
The OPEC was responsible for raising petroleum prices in the 1970’s.
Three Days after Nixon announced an emergency aid package for Israel, Saudi
Arabia cut off oil shipments to the US.
This Oil embargo had disastrous consequences for the US economy. The
this embargo was massive inflation.
biggest impact from
Nixon responded with a series of temporary measures.
This included pleas to the American public to turn down their thermostats and to avoid driving just
for fun.
The oil embargo ended in March, after Kissinger negotiated for Israel to leave in the
Sinai.
The embargo ended but the energy crisis did not.
Domestic oil production began to decline and the US was faced with the reality of
limited resources.
The Great Inflation
The price spike from the Yom Kippur War was the first of the “oil shocks” during
the 1970’s
President Gerald R. Ford proposed a tax cut to stimulate consumer spending, so
Congress passed a $23 billion reduction in taxes in early 1975
This led to gradual recovery by 1976
Jimmy Carter had little success with reviving the economy.
Federal deficits and relatively high interest rates slowed the economy in 1977 and 1978
In late 1979, the Federal Reserve Board began an initiative to halt inflation through
mandating increased bank reserves in order to curtail the money in circulation
The Shifting American Economy
The Oil Shocks had caused serious problems for the United States
However, American business still displayed the ability to develop new technologies giving the promise
of a renewed economy
High-technology industries became the most profitable in the 1970’s
Computer companies and electronics firms grew at an increased rate
At the same time, the decline of the steel and auto industries led to massive
unemployment and economic stagflation.
A New Environmentalism
With the Oil Shocks, came a wave of alternative energy sources.
Solar Power- Clean and endlessly renewable but, underdeveloped and expensive
Hydropower- Proven more reliable but, most dam sites had already been built upon
Wind Power- Infinite but, can only be used in precise areas where few people lived
Coal Power- Proven reliable and cheap but, was dirty and caused pollution
Nuclear Power made environmentalists nervous due to the production of
radioactive waste that could remain for thousands of years.
Congress strengthened the Clean Air Act and created the federal “Superfund” for
toxic cleanups.
The Changing American Family
Decline in the number of families with father working and mother staying at home
Majority: both parents worked outside of the home
Percent of married couples with children dropped
Percent of unmarried couples doubled
Adults living alone > married couples with children
Percent of Children living with only a single parent doubled
Half of all marriages ended in divorce
Birth rate climbed as “baby boomers” matured
Gains and Setbacks for Women
Due to inflation, more income was required---> more women in labor force
Mostly low paying service jobs
Equal Rights Amendment: “designed to guarantee women treatment under the law”
Against: drafting of women, unisex bathrooms, homosexual marriages
Was never adopted even with a three year extension (3 states did not ratify)
Roe v. Wade: constitutional right to abortion in early stages of pregnancy
Against: orthodox Catholics and Protestants
The Gay Liberation Movement
Stonewall Riots- beginning of modern gay liberation movement
Demanded an end to discrimination
Gay Liberation Front and Gay Activist Alliance
Urge homosexuals to “come out of the closet”
1987- 600,000 gays and lesbians marched in Washington for gay rights
Violence against gays
The AIDS Epidemic
Originated in central Africa
first victims primarily gay men→ spread to IV drug users
Couldn’t be easily contained
Caused people to be more aware of safe sex
November 1983- 2,803 known cases and 1,416 deaths
money was put towards research instead of slowing the process of contamination
Reagan put former chief naval officer, Admiral James Watkins, to study AIDS
epidemic
The Ford Administration
Former Michigan Congressman, known to be first president not to be elected into
national office
August 1974- replaced Nixon due to Watergate scandal
Addressed CIA problems
illegal CIA actions
appointed George H. Bush as director of CIA
Reform
Shape national security policy
Carter and American Malaise
Carter > Ford in 1976 election
outsider, fresh leadership
Failed to balance budgets
“national malaise” speech- blamed his failure on the Americans
fired Cabinet members
no sense of political direction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8wiic-ivro
Troubles Abroad
Camp David Accords: President Carter met with the leaders of Egypt and Israel to
negotiate a peace treaty in 1978 at Camp David. This provided a framework for
peace negotiations rather than an actual peace settlement.
Iranian Revolution- 1979
October 1979: President Carter allowed Shah to enter US for medical treatment and as a result, in
November 1979, Iran militants seized the US embassy in Tehran and took 53 Americans hostage
(Iranian hostage crisis).
The Collapse of Detente
●
Congressional refusal to relax traded restrictions on Soviet Union ruins Kissinger’s attempts to win
political concessions.
●
Growing dissident movement and harsh policy regarding restriction of emigration of Soviet Jews, caused
Americans to doubt seeking accommodation with Soviet Union.
●
Carter’s emphasis on human rights appeared to Russians as a direct repudiation of detente
○ Reaffirmed concern over mistreatment of human beings anywhere in the world
■ “our commitment to human rights must be absolute”
○ Carter withheld aid from authoritarian governments in Chile and Argentina but equally repressive
regimes in South Korea
○ Philippines continued to receive American support.
○ Soviets found everything to be threatening (even an inconsistent human right policy)
Zbigniew Brzezinski: Carter’s national security adviser.
Prevailed on the president to advocate adoption of of a new MX missile to replace minuteman ICBMS.
Also successful in persuading president to use China to outmaneuver Soviets
January 1, 1979: US and China exchanged ambassadors
completing reconciliation that Nixon had started in 1971
Relationship between Beijing an Washington posed a threat to Soviets with the link between its two
most powerful enemies
December 1979: Cold War resumed
Was awakened when Soviet invaded Afghanistan
Carter Doctrine” threatened armed opposition to any further Soviet advance towards the Gulf
President banned sale of high technology to Russia, embargoed export of grain, resumed draft
Reagan Revolution
● Economic and political troubles of 1970’s made Americans turn to conservatism
○ Watergate scandal won the Democrats until republicans discovered a liking in Ronald Reagan.
○ Republican victory was assured
The Election of 1980
● Federal Reserve Board’s effort to tighten money supply leads to recession
○ unemployment rising to 8% by July 1980
○ combined rate of inflation and unemployment stayed above 20%
● Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ruins hopes for detente.
○ makes Carter seem naive
● Reagan was favored among the Democrats
○ Blamed Carter for inflation (automatically made workers take his side)
○ Accused Carter of allowing Soviets to outstrip the US military
● Carter says Reagan was too reckless to lead American foreign policy into the
nuclear age
● Reagan challenges and says: “Are you better off now than you were four years
ago?”
○ voters responded “no” and Reagan won in 44 states and gained 51% of the popular vote
○ Carter won in 6 states and 41% of the popular vote
○ John Anderson carried 8% of popular vote but no states
○ Candidacy of John Anderson hurt Carter’s reelection
● Republicans received 52.3% of the popular vote, Democrats received 47.7%
Cutting Taxes and Spending
● Inflation devastated economy
○ interest rates were about 20%
○ value of a dollar was 36 cents
○ Reagan blamed “the worst economic mess since the Great Depression” on high federal spending
and excessive taxation
○ “Government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem”
● Reagan embraces supply-side economics to fix nation’s economy.
○ if encouraged tax cuts, would shift its resources from tax shelters to productive investment.
● Republicans focused on cutting $41 billion from budget by cutting on food
Unleashing the Private Sector
Reagan’s goal was deregulation
appointed men and women who had the same beliefs to direct economy.
Secretary of Interior James Watt opened federal land to coal and timber production,
falted and growth of national parkland to outrage environmentalists.
Reagan later made him resign
Transportation Secretary Drew Lewis: most effective cabinet member
helped relieved troubles in automotive industry
played a key role in getting Japan to agree to restrict automobile exports to US
gained notoriety in opposing a strike by the air traffic controlers union
Reagan administration was less successful in trying to cut back on primary
entitlement programs
Income tax cut of five percent the first year and ten percent for the second and third years.
Security was biggest issue
500% increase in Social Security benefits threatened to bankrupt system’s trust fund
Reagan tried to counter by making small cuts in future benefits
He called for a bipartisan commission to recommend ways to protect the system’s endangered trust
fund
Congress raised retirement age, delayed cost-of-living for 6 months and taxing pensions paid to the
well-to-do elderly
Result was mixed success
Administration dealt with women’s concerns and civil rights
Reagan and the World
Regan was determined to reverse course of American policy abroad
Believed that American prestige and standing in the world had dropped to an all time low under
Carter
He devoted himself to strengthening America’s defenses and recapturing world
supremacy from Soviet Union
Challenging the “Evil Empire”
January 20, 1981: Iran released the fifty-three Americans held hostage
this lead to him expanding the military
5% increase in defense spending
Justification of all new weapons was because of Reagan’s believe that the Soviet
Union was a deadly enemy
Believed that Russians were ready to “commit crime, lie, cheat” to advance their case
Claimed “soviet-sponsored guerrillas and terrorists at work in Central and South America, Africa and
the Middle East”
Reagan abandoned detente and proceeded to implement a 1979 deceision to place a
Confrontation in Central America
In Nicaragua, the leftist Sandinista coalition succeeded in overthrowing the Somoza
regime in 1979.
To avoid forcing Nicaragua into the Cuban and Soviet orbit, Carter extended American aid.
The Reagan Administration quickly reversed this policy and cut off aid in Spring 1981
In April 1983, Reagan asked Congress of money and the authority to remove the
Sandinistas.
Congress refused because they were fearful of a repeat of the Vietnam fiasco
The US backed rebels that were trying to disrupt the Nicaraguan economy
More Troubles in the Middle East
June 6, 1982: Israel invaded southern Lebanon to secure northern border and
destroy the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) with US encouragement
United States, France, and Italy sent force to permit PLO to evacuate into Tunisia.
After American Marines were sent into Lebanon, they were fired upon by Muslims
who thought they were aiding Christian militia.
239 Marines killed after terrorists drove bomb into their barracks
Reagan pulled American troops out
Trading Arms for Hostages
Reagan had 59% of popular vote compared to candidate Walter Mondale (former
Vice President for President Carter)
curbed inflation, revived the economy, challenged Communism
Iran- Contra Affair: high officials in Reagan administration secretly selling arms to
Iran and they used the money to finance Contra rebels in Nicaragua.
illegal- North (National Security Council) and Pointdexter (National Security Advisor) prosecuted
America sold antitank missiles to Iran in exchange for 6 American hostages that in
Lebanon
Iran needed weapons against Iraq
Reagan The Peacemaker
A change in leadership greatly changed the Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev intended to improve relations with the US as a part of his
new perestroika and glasnost policies.
Glasnost- Political openness
Perestroika- Restructuring of the Soviet Economy
A series of meeting between Gorbachev and Reagan ended in December 1987 with
an “Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty”
Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to remove and destroy all intermediate range missiles in Europe
By the time Reagan had left office in January 1989, he had achieved a series of