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Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to-student file sharing network. Section 1: Spain - The Spanish Empire reached its height during the reign of Charles's son, Philip II, who became king in 1556. - In 1580, Philip II of Spain enforced his claim to the Portuguese throne by invading and conquering the country. - Spain gained control of the Philippine Islands during the late 1500's. - Spain also fought to defend western Europe from the expanding Ottoman Empire. Philip's rule brought the beginning of the Golden Age of Spanish art, a time when writers and painters created some of Spain's greatest artistic works. - Although Philip ruled a worldwide empire and Spain was the strongest nation in Europe, signs of strain began to appear. - Wars, inflation, and poor economic management weakened the country's economy. Philip's attempts to slow or stop the advance of Protestantism in Europe met serious opposition from the Netherlands and England. In the 1560's, the Netherlands rebelled against Spain. In 1588, Philip II launched a great Spanish Armada of about 130 ships in an unsuccessful attempt to conquer England. English ships repelled the armada, and storms destroyed many of the Spanish ships during the retreat. - Only about two-thirds of the armada made it back to Spain. - In the 1600's, Spain was weakened by wars, rebellions, economic crises, and weak rulers. - Fighting in the Netherlands continued into the early 1600's. Spain heavily financed the Roman Catholic cause in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). - It also fought wars with France and faced rebellions in Portugal and the region of Catalonia in northern Spain. - The last Spanish Habsburg, Charles II, had no children of his own. - In 1700, he named a French duke, Philip of Anjou, as heir to the Spanish throne. Philip was a grandson of France's King Louis XIV, who reigned in France from 1643 to 1715. Philip was also descended from the Spanish Habsburgs through intermarriage between the Spanish and French royal families. - When Charles II died later in 1700, Philip became King Philip V of Spain, the first Spanish ruler from the French Bourbon family. - The succession of Philip V touched off the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). France fought England, the Netherlands, and other European nations that opposed French control of the Spanish crown. France lost the war. - Under the peace treaty, Philip remained king of Spain, but Spain lost all its possessions in Europe. - In addition, the United Kingdom received Gibraltar and the Balearic island of Minorca Section 2: England - Henry VIII inherited great wealth when he became king in 1509. His father, Henry VII, had been a thrifty ruler. - Henry VIII was talented and popular, but he was also selfish and wasteful. He enjoyed luxury, sports, good food, and music. - Early in his reign, Henry VIII made Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, archbishop of York, responsible for much of the country's management. But then, Henry wanted to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the first of his six wives. - Wolsey was unable to get the pope to dissolve the marriage, so in 1529, Henry took away Wolsey's authority. During the 1530's, Thomas Cromwell became Henry's chief adviser. In 1534, Henry had Parliament pass a law declaring that the king, not the pope, was supreme head of the church in England. - These actions occurred while the Reformation, the religious movement that gave birth to Protestantism, was spreading across northern Europe. - Following Henry's actions, English church leaders made changes in Roman Catholic services that gradually led to the formation of the Church of England. - A number of Henry's subjects who opposed him were imprisoned or executed for treason. - During Henry VIII's reign, England and Wales were finally united. The Welsh people had revolted against the English several times after Edward I had conquered Wales in the 1280's. But the Welsh gradually accepted the idea of union with England. - In acts of 1536 and 1543, Henry joined both countries under one system of government. - Parliament passed more church reforms during the short reign of Edward VI, Henry's son. But in 1553, Edward's half sister Mary became queen. - Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon and was a Roman Catholic. As queen, she reestablished Catholicism as the state religion. - Queen Elizabeth IThe reign of Elizabeth I is often called the Golden Age of English history. - Elizabeth became queen in 1558 after Mary, her half sister, died. Elizabeth was a strong but cautious ruler who played her enemies off against one another. One of her first acts was to reestablish the Church of England. - Under Elizabeth, England advanced in many areas. Merchants formed a great trading company, the East India Company, in 1600. - Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, and other daring English adventurers explored the West Indies and the coasts of North and South America. English literature flowered during Elizabeth's reign with the works of such great writers as Francis Bacon, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and--above all--William Shakespeare. - In 1588, England won a great sea battle against Spain, the most powerful nation in Europe. King Philip II of Spain built a huge fleet called the Armada to conquer England. - But an English fleet led by Admiral Lord Howard of Effingham defeated the Armada. - After Elizabeth I died in 1603, her cousin James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne. James belonged to the House of Stuart, which had ruled Scotland since 1371. - As king of England, he took the title of James I. Although England and Scotland became joined in a personal union under James, he ruled each country as a separate kingdom. During his reign, English colonists founded the Jamestown and Plymouth settlements in America. - The English people disliked James. He increased royal spending, went into debt, and raised taxes. He quarreled frequently with Parliament because he wanted to rule as an absolute monarch. - He believed in the divine right of kings--that is, that kings got their right to rule from God, not from the consent of the people. - Under James's son, Charles I, the struggle between the king and Parliament became more intense. - Three groups--Puritans, lawyers, and members of the House of Commons--united against the king. In 1628, Charles reluctantly agreed to the Petition of Right, a document that limited the power of the king. - However, Charles had no intention of keeping the agreement. - Charles I did not call Parliament into session from 1629 to 1640. - When Parliament finally met in 1640, it refused to grant the king any funds unless he again agreed to limit his power. Charles reacted angrily, and civil war broke out in 1642. - People who supported the king in the war were called Royalists or Cavaliers. Parliament's greatest supporters were the Puritans, who were called Roundheads because they cut their hair short. - The Puritans closed the theaters, changed the structure of the Church of England, and forced many of their religious beliefs on the people. During the war, Oliver Cromwell emerged as a leader in the army and in Parliament. In 1646, Charles surrendered to Scottish troops, but the next year, they turned him over to the Roundheads. Attempts to negotiate a settlement between the king and Parliament failed. - In 1647 and 1648, the army removed the more moderate members from Parliament. The remaining members set up a special court, which condemned Charles to death. He was beheaded in 1649. - After Charles's execution, England became a republic called the Commonwealth of England. A committee of Parliament ruled the country. Cromwell ended the Commonwealth of England in 1653 by forcibly disbanding the Long Parliament. - The Parliament was called Long because part of it had been meeting since 1640. - England then became a dictatorship called the Protectorate, with Cromwell as lord protector. During his rule, Cromwell brought Scotland and Ireland under the control of England. His armies swept through both countries and put down all resisting forces. Section 3: France - The power of the kings and their ministers (high government officials) grew steadily from the 1500's to the 1700's. - France became a strong nation, largely through the efforts of these ministers. The first important minister was Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of Sully, who served Henry IV. Sully promoted agriculture and such public works as highways and canals. - He reduced the taille, the chief tax on the common people. - Louis XIII followed his father, Henry IV, to the throne. - But the actual ruler was Louis XIII's prime minister, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu. Richelieu increased royal power more than any other individual. - Louis XIll's son Louis XIV was the outstanding example of the absolute French king. He is said to have boasted: "I am the State." - After the death of his prime minister, Jules Cardinal Mazarin, in 1661, Louis declared that he would be his own prime minister. - In 1685, Louis canceled the Edict of Nantes and began to persecute the Huguenots savagely. - About 200,000 Huguenots fled France, which weakened the country's economy. Louis's minister of finance, Jean Baptiste Colbert, promoted a strong economy. But the construction of Louis's grand Palace of Versailles and a series of major wars drained France's finances. - Louis tried to rule supreme in Europe. He was stopped by military alliances that included England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and other nations. - The gathering storm. By the 1700's, a government bureaucracy had developed to manage a large standing royal army, as well as to collect taxes. - Royal courts upheld law and order. Lawyers and jurists of the courts bought their offices from the king at very high prices. The king allowed those who bought the highest judicial offices to call themselves nobles, and he granted them tax exemptions. - This burdensome system worked well enough to allow remarkable economic and population growth in the 1700's. - But the population growth exceeded agriculture's production capacities, and food shortages and famines became common. Such growth also strained the guild system that governed the activities of merchants and craftworkers in the towns. - Burdened by the needs of the military and unable to tax nobles or church lands, the government was forced to borrow heavily. - In 1786, the government proposed a new land tax in order to avoid bankruptcy. Many urban lawyers, merchants, clerks, and craftworkers, as well as some aristocrats, opposed any new taxes. The French Revolution was born out of this crisis. Section 4: German States - By 1600, the German lands were divided by many political and religious rivalries. In 1618, a Protestant revolt in Bohemia set off a series of wars that lasted for 30 years. - The wars were partially religious struggles between Protestants and Catholics, but they were also political struggles between certain princes and the emperor. In addition, the kings of Denmark, Sweden, and France entered the wars to gain German lands and to reduce the Habsburgs' power. - The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648. Under this treaty, France and Sweden received some German lands. - The wars had been hard on German trade and farming. Large parts of Germany were ruined, and some of the towns had nearly disappeared. The emperor's already limited power had been further weakened by the wars. Germany was a collection of free cities and hundreds of states. - During the 1600's, the Hohenzollern family began to expand its power in eastern Germany. - The Hohenzollerns ruled the state of Brandenburg. Berlin was their capital. In 1618, the ruler of Brandenburg inherited the duchy of Prussia. The Peace of Westphalia added part of Pomerania and some territories on the lower Rhine River to the Hohenzollern holdings. - The Hohenzollerns' rise to power began with Frederick William (the Great Elector), who became ruler of Brandenburg in 1640. - He began to unite and expand his lands after the Thirty Years' War. In 1701, his son Frederick became the first king of Prussia. The Hohenzollerns' power continued to grow under the next two kings, Frederick William I and Frederick II (the Great). - The Hohenzollerns built a large, well-trained professional army and a strong civil service to defend and rule their scattered territories. - Through their civil service, they improved farming and industry, and filled their treasury with tax money. They built canals, schools, and roads, and promoted the arts and learning. - After Frederick the Great became king in 1740, he seized Silesia, a rich province of Austria. - This invasion led to fighting between Prussia and Austria in two wars, the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Many other nations fought in these wars. Some sided with Frederick, and others with his enemy, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. Under the final peace treaty, Silesia remained under Prussian rule. Prussia was now recognized as a great power. Section 5: Russia - After the rise of Moscow, its grand prince came to be called czar. In 1547, Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible, became the first ruler to be crowned czar. - Ivan made the power of the czar over all Russia complete. - Ivan was brutal, extremely suspicious, and perhaps, at times, insane. He formed a special police force and began a reign of terror in which he ordered the arrest and murder of hundreds of aristocrats. - Ivan gave his victims' estates as payment to the service gentry (landowners serving in the army and government). He also established strict rules concerning the number of warriors and horses each landowner had to supply to the army. Ivan burned many towns and villages, and he killed church leaders who opposed him. In a fit of rage, Ivan even struck and killed his oldest son. - The number of service gentry increased rapidly. But their estates had no value unless the peasants remained on the land and farmed it. - Ivan and later czars passed a series of laws that bound the peasants to the land as serfs. Serfdom became the economic basis of Russian power. The development of Russian serfdom differed sharply from changes occurring in Western Europe at the time. There, during the Renaissance, the growth of trade led to the use of money as royal payment. It also led to the disappearance of serfdom in Western Europe. Ivan fought Tatars at Astrakhan and Kazan to the southeast, and he won their lands. - Russian forces then crossed the Ural Mountains and conquered western Siberia. Ivan also tried to win lands northwest to the Baltic Sea, but he was defeated by Lithuanian, Polish, and Swedish armies. In 1682, a struggle for power resulted in the crowning of two half brothers--Peter I (later known as Peter the Great) and Ivan V--as co-czars. Both were children, and Ivan's sister Sophia ruled as regent (temporary ruler) until Peter's followers forced her to retire in 1689. Peter made close contact with the many Western Europeans living in Moscow and absorbed much new information from them. - He came into full power in 1696, when Ivan died. - Peter was greatly influenced by ideas of commerce and government then popular in Western Europe. A powerful ruler, he improved Russia's military and made many important conquests. - During Peter's reign, Russia expanded its territory to the Baltic Sea in the Great Northern War with Sweden. In 1703, Peter founded St. Petersburg on the Baltic, and he moved the capital there in 1712. After traveling throughout Europe, he introduced Western-type clothing, factories, and schools in Russia, and reorganized Russia's government to make it run more efficiently. - Peter forced Russia's nobility to adopt many Western customs. He also increased the czar's power over the aristocrats, church officials, and serfs. - He dealt harshly with those who opposed these changes. Under Peter, the legal status of serfs further deteriorated. - After Peter's death in 1725, a series of struggles for the throne took place. The service gentry and the leading nobles were on opposite sides. - Candidates for the throne who were supported by the service gentry won most of these struggles and rewarded their followers. The rulers increased the gentry's power over the serfs and local affairs. - The gentry's enforced service to the state was gradually reduced. It was ended altogether in 1762. Later that year, Empress Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great, came to power. - Magnificent royal parties and other festivities, all in the latest Western fashion, took place during the 1700's. - The arts were promoted, and many new schools were started, mainly for the upper classes. The Russian Imperial School of Ballet was founded, and Italian opera and chamber music were brought to Russia. It also became fashionable in Russia to repeat the newest Western ideas on freedom and social reform, especially during the rule of Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great. In 1767, Catherine called a large legislative assembly to reform Russian laws. However, the assembly achieved nothing. - The great majority of Russians remained in extreme poverty and ignorance during this period. In 1773 and 1774, the peasants' discontent boiled over in a revolt led by Emelian Pugachev, a Cossack. - The revolt swept through Russia from the Ural Mountains to the Volga River. It spread almost to Moscow before being crushed by government troops. In 1775, Catherine further tightened the landowners' control over the serfs. - Under Catherine the Great, Russia rose to new importance as a major world power. In the late 1700's, Austria, Prussia, and Russia gradually divided Poland among themselves. - Russia gained nearly all of Belarus, Lithuania, and Ukraine from Poland. In wars against the Ottoman Empire (based in present-day Turkey), Russia gained the Crimea and other Ottoman lands. Catherine died in 1796. She was succeeded by her son, Paul. Keywords: section spain spanish empire reached height during reign charles philip became king philip spain enforced claim portuguese throne invading conquering country spain gained control philippine islands during late also fought defend western europe from expanding ottoman empire philip rule brought beginning golden spanish time when writers painters created some greatest artistic works although ruled worldwide empire strongest nation europe signs strain began appear wars inflation poor economic management weakened country economy attempts slow stop advance protestantism europe serious opposition from netherlands england netherlands rebelled against launched great spanish armada about ships unsuccessful attempt conquer england english ships repelled armada storms destroyed many ships during retreat only about thirds armada made back weakened wars rebellions economic crises weak rulers fighting netherlands continued into early heavily financed roman catholic cause thirty years also fought wars with france faced rebellions portugal region catalonia northern last habsburg charles children named french duke anjou heir throne grandson france king louis reigned france from also descended habsburgs through intermarriage between french royal families when charles died later became king first ruler french bourbon family succession touched succession fought england other european nations that opposed control crown lost under peace treaty remained lost possessions addition united kingdom received gibraltar balearic island minorca section henry viii inherited great wealth when became father henry been thrifty ruler henry viii talented popular selfish wasteful enjoyed luxury sports good food music early reign viii made thomas cardinal wolsey archbishop york responsible much country management then wanted annul marriage catherine aragon first wives wolsey unable pope dissolve marriage took away wolsey authority thomas cromwell chief adviser parliament pass declaring that pope supreme head church these actions occurred while reformation religious movement that gave birth protestantism spreading across northern following actions english church leaders made changes roman catholic services gradually formation church number subjects opposed were imprisoned executed treason reign wales were finally united welsh people revolted against english several times after edward conquered wales welsh gradually accepted idea union with acts joined both countries under system government parliament passed more reforms short edward edward half sister mary queen mary daughter catherine aragon roman catholic queen reestablished catholicism state religion queen elizabeth ithe elizabeth often called golden history elizabeth after mary half sister died strong cautious ruler played enemies against another first acts reestablish under advanced many areas merchants formed great trading company east india company francis drake walter raleigh other daring adventurers explored west indies coasts north south america literature flowered with works such writers francis bacon jonson christopher marlowe edmund spenser above william shakespeare battle most powerful nation built huge fleet called conquer fleet admiral lord howard effingham defeated after died cousin james scotland inherited throne james belonged house stuart which ruled scotland since took title james although scotland joined personal union ruled each separate kingdom colonists founded jamestown plymouth settlements america people disliked increased royal spending went into debt raised taxes quarreled frequently parliament because wanted rule absolute monarch believed divine right kings kings their right rule consent people struggle between more intense three groups puritans lawyers members house commons united reluctantly agreed petition right document limited power however intention keeping agreement call into session finally refused grant funds unless again agreed limit power reacted angrily civil broke supported were called royalists cavaliers greatest supporters puritans roundheads because they their hair short puritans closed theaters changed structure forced many their religious beliefs oliver cromwell emerged leader army surrendered scottish troops next year they turned over roundheads attempts negotiate settlement between failed army removed more moderate members remaining members special court which condemned death beheaded execution republic commonwealth committee cromwell ended commonwealth forcibly disbanding long long because part been meeting since then dictatorship protectorate lord protector brought ireland control armies swept through both countries down resisting forces section power kings ministers high government officials grew steadily strong nation largely through efforts these ministers important minister maximilien bethune duke sully served sully promoted agriculture such public works highways canals reduced taille chief common louis xiii followed father actual louis xiii prime minister armand jean plessis cardinal richelieu richelieu increased royal than other individual xill outstanding example absolute said have boasted state death prime minister jules cardinal mazarin declared would prime canceled edict nantes began persecute huguenots savagely about huguenots fled which weakened economy finance jean baptiste colbert promoted strong economy construction grand palace versailles series major drained finances tried supreme stopped military alliances included holy nations gathering storm government bureaucracy developed manage large standing army well collect taxes courts upheld order lawyers jurists courts bought offices very high prices allowed those bought highest judicial offices call themselves nobles granted them exemptions this burdensome system worked well enough allow remarkable economic population growth population growth exceeded agriculture production capacities food shortages famines common such growth strained guild system governed activities merchants craftworkers towns burdened needs military unable nobles lands forced borrow heavily proposed land order avoid bankruptcy urban lawyers merchants clerks craftworkers well some aristocrats opposed taxes revolution born this crisis german states german lands divided political religious rivalries protestant revolt bohemia series lasted years partially struggles protestants catholics they political struggles certain princes emperor addition denmark sweden entered gain german lands reduce habsburgs peace westphalia ended thirty years this treaty sweden received some been hard trade farming large parts germany ruined towns nearly disappeared emperor already limited further germany collection free cities hundreds states hohenzollern family began expand eastern germany hohenzollerns state brandenburg berlin capital brandenburg inherited duchy prussia peace westphalia added part pomerania territories lower rhine river hohenzollern holdings hohenzollerns rise frederick william elector brandenburg unite expand thirty frederick prussia hohenzollerns continued grow next frederick william built large trained professional civil service defend scattered territories civil service improved farming industry filled treasury money built canals schools roads promoted arts learning seized silesia rich province austria invasion fighting prussia austria austrian succession seven nations these sided others enemy empress maria theresa austria final treaty silesia remained prussian recognized russia rise moscow grand prince came czar ivan known ivan terrible crowned czar ivan czar over russia complete brutal extremely suspicious perhaps times insane formed special police force terror ordered arrest murder hundreds aristocrats gave victims estates payment service gentry landowners serving established strict rules concerning number warriors horses each landowner supply burned towns villages killed leaders rage even struck killed oldest number gentry increased rapidly estates value unless peasants remained land farmed later czars passed series laws bound peasants land serfs serfdom basis russian development russian serfdom differed sharply changes occurring western time there renaissance trade money payment disappearance serfdom western tatars astrakhan kazan southeast russian forces then crossed ural mountains conquered siberia tried northwest baltic defeated lithuanian polish swedish armies struggle resulted crowning half brothers peter later known peter czars both children sister sophia regent temporary until peter followers forced retire close contact europeans living moscow absorbed much information them came full greatly influenced ideas commerce popular powerful improved russia military important conquests expanded territory baltic northern sweden founded petersburg baltic moved capital there traveling throughout introduced type clothing factories schools reorganized make efficiently nobility adopt customs over aristocrats officials serfs dealt harshly those changes legal status serfs further deteriorated death struggles took place gentry leading nobles opposite sides candidates supported most rewarded followers rulers local affairs enforced gradually reduced ended altogether year empress catherine known came magnificent parties festivities latest fashion place arts schools started mainly upper classes imperial school ballet founded italian opera chamber music brought fashionable repeat newest ideas freedom social reform especially legislative assembly reform laws however assembly achieved nothing majority russians extreme poverty ignorance period peasants discontent boiled revolt emelian pugachev cossack revolt swept ural mountains volga river spread almost moscow before being crushed troops further tightened landowners rose importance major world late divided poland among themselves gained nearly belarus lithuania ukraine poland ottoman based present turkey gained crimea ottoman succeeded paul Keywords General: 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