Download N - Manitoba Association of School Psychologists

Memory Interventions
Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D.
MASP Conference: Day II
October 23, 2015
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Workshop Information Sources
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Essentials of Working Memory Assessment
Long-Term Memory Problems in Children
Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2nd Ed.
Working Memory in the Classroom
www.psychprocesses.com
www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com
www.workingmemoryonline.com
Presenter Contact: [email protected]
Workshop Content
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Working Memory Exercises
Cognitive Load Reduction
Metamemory
Working Memory Strategies
Other Processing Interventions
Working Memory Accommodations
Long-Term Memory Strategies
Mnemonics
Mnemonic Classroom
Selecting/Planning the Intervention
1. Begin with assessment results
2. Deficits, intra-individual weaknesses, and
normative weaknesses should be addressed
3. If no assessment, can do some matching from
risk factors; see table
4. There are some core exercises and strategies
that all should have
5. Do both WM and LTM; they support each other
6. Some trial and error necessary
To Select Methods, Consider:
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Learner’s needs, goals, and priorities
Related cognitive processing weaknesses
The severity of the memory deficits
How well the strategy generalizes
The extent of practice required
Learner’s age and overall cognitive ability
Learner’s level of metamemory, executive
functioning, and strategy use
Matching Memory Training to
Specific Memory Deficits
1. Try to specifically address memory deficits
1. E.g., if verbal WM is weak, then verbal WM
training exercises and strategies are needed
2. If visual-spatial is average or above, minimal
or no training is necessary in visual-spatial
3. See Table that matches needs and methods
Selecting Exercises and Strategies
1. If weak LTM, WM exercises should be
included even if WM is normal
1. WM helps with encoding and retrieval
2. If weak WM, LTM strategies should be
included even if LTM is normal
1. LTM reduces cognitive load and need to retain
3. Executive functions should be strengthened
4. Existing strategies might need re-training
How to Collect Data and
Document Progress
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Pre and post standardized testing (not the best)
HSR has non-standardized pre and post test
Rating scales before, during, and after, e.g., CPPS
Track recall on material used with new strategies
and compare with old/non-strategic learning
5. Monitor acad. performance, e.g., homework
6. Assess attention/executive functions
7. Collect classroom test scores
Data Collection During Sessions
1. Collect immediate data each time a new strategy
is introduced
2. Can be for WM or LTM (adjust intervals)
3. Student uses current method; measure recall
4. Introduce new strategy; measure recall
5. New strategy almost always works better
6. Improvement can’t be attributed to practice
effects
7. Child immediately recognizes efficacy
Memory Interventions: General Approach
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Principle: make the brain work; it gets better
Strengthen weakness/deficit with exercises
Utilize existing strengths to compensate
Use methods that involve other processes,
more of the brain
5. Exercises prompt strategy use
6. Strategies allow more effective use of existing
memory abilities
7. Accommodations and modifications that reduce
the need to use the weak processes
Approaches to Strengthening WM
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Using LTM to support WM
Reducing the learner’s cognitive load
Using strategies to more effectively use WM
Increasing WM capacity through exercises
Providing accommodations and support
Strengthening attention, executive functions,
and related cognitive functions
Computerized and Internet-Based
Working Memory Training
1. These are exercises, not strategies
1. But they prompt the use of a strategy
2. They work because of brain plasticity
3. Evidence that these exercises improve
1. With practice
2. Untrained WM performance (near transfer)
3. Far transfer to academics: evidence is
inconsistent and limited
What is Required to Make a
Computerized Exercise Work
1. Must be adaptive
1. Difficulty level constantly adjusted
2. Confirmed by research
2. Consistent high cognitive workloads
1. Has to be challenging enough
3. Extensive practice over a sustained period of time
1. 30 minutes a day for 25 days over 5 weeks min.
4. Processing and storage required during the task
Why WM Brain Training Works
“the experience of taxing WM to its limits over a
sustained period of time may induce long-term
plasticity through either improving the efficiency
of neuronal responses or extending the cortical
map serving WM. The training program may also
promote self-awareness and the development
of compensatory strategies.” Westerberg et al.,
2007).
Cogmed Training Details
1. Adaptive, game-like, internet-based training,
records everything
2. Has preschool, school age, and adult levels
3. 25 sessions, 30 minutes each with 8 exercises
out of 12, over 5 weeks
4. Child can do without assistance
5. Does not encourage use of strategies
6. https://youtu.be/j-Pojkqekq0
7. See Video
Research on Cogmed Training
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Improved WM, especially visual-spatial
Fluid reasoning sometimes improves
Math and reading sometimes improve
ADHD kids improved in WM; less
hyperactivity
5. Holmes et al. found substantial and
sustained gains in WM and math
Cogmed Research Controversy
1. Two recent studies have concluded that the
claims are “largely unsubstantiated”
2. No control group
3. Younger kids respond better
4. Not everyone improves
5. Is it just practice effects?
6. More recent study with proper design: WM
improved, but still poor far transfer
Articles on Cogmed Controversy
• Shipstead, Z, Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Cogmed
working memory training: Does the evidence support the
claims? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and
Cognition 1, 185-193.
• Melby-Lervag, M., & Hulme, C. (2012). Is working memory
training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental
Psychology, DOI: 10.1037/a0028228
• Study with proper research design found WM gains: Gray et
al. (2012). ). Effects of computerized working memory
training program on working memory, attention, and
academics in adolescents with severe LD and comorbid
ADHD: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1277-1284.
Dehn’s Views on Cogmed
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Majority of kids will benefit
Cost is an issue; timely feedback is an issue
Maintaining practice schedule is concern
Parents not trained to supervise practice
In general, may be too superficial
Cogmed discourages strategies; Dehn
introduces when subject hits wall
7. Probably best for ADHD/WM co-morbid
Transfer and Maintenance
1. Most working memory exercises have good near
transfer but poor far transfer
2. Why does it not far transfer and maintain, given
learning’s dependence on WM?
1. Exercises are more STM than WM; don’t meet
trainee’s WM needs
2. Not enough time allowed for transfer to occur
3. Lack of motivation and effort
4. Trainee does not do anything to maintain after
training
Jungle Memory
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Some evidence-based for working memory
Improvements in WM and academics
Includes letters, words, and math facts
Only 3 exercises
More appropriate for elementary than older
8-week program
A weaker program than Cogmed and most
other online programs
WM Training Impact on Brain
1. Takeuchi et al. (2010)
2. Adaptive training with 2 N-Back visual tasks
3. Increase in white matter correlated with
amount of training & improved performance
4. Mainly adjacent to the corpus callosum and
in white matter parietal region
5. Increased transfer of info, at the dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex, location of executive WM
The Most Powerful Exercise: N-Back
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Challenging task but easily administered
Found to have corresponding growth in brain
Remember stimulus n-items back
n-back task
Hands-on exercise covered later
As a result of the research, most brain
training programs have numerous n-back
exercises
Lumosity
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Numerous exercises; based on research
Some WM tasks under other categories
Are adaptive and appropriate
Affordable, annual membership
Can monitor learner’s progress
Select target areas when learner signs up or
provide list of appropriate WM games
7. Lots of challenging n-back tasks
8. Difficult for young children; site says 13+ years
Brain HQ
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Affordable plans, such as yearly
Variety of WM exercises but no N-back
Some WM tasks under other categories
Well designed, challenging, cover a wide
range of ability and age
5. Has verbal WM exercises, e.g., listening to a
conversation
Guidelines for Selecting WM Apps
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Consistent high cognitive workloads
Processing and storage required during task
Program is adaptive; keeps records
Extensive practice time
Consistent with evidence-base; such as n-back
More than visual-spatial; some kind of verbal
processing and retention required
7. Encourages a conscious strategy
How To Use Online WM Exercises
1. These should be incorporated into intervention so
that total exercise time is sufficient.
2. Can be done at home under parental guidance; set up
a schedule with specific exercises
3. Can do some during your sessions under your account
4. Monitor their progress
5. Talk with child about using strategies and suggest
strategies
6. Main concerns: does not follow schedule; no effort;
just guessing
Discussion
1. What concerns do you have about online
working memory training?
2. What benefits do you see in WM online
training?
Cognitive Load Theory
1. WM is a combination of processing & storage
2. “Cognitive Load” is the processing portion
3. Processing & storage both draw on WM capacity; so
it’s a balancing act
4. The greater the processing demands/longer the
processing, the more info. lost from WM/STM
5. Can focus attention on only 1 aspect of WM at a time;
switching is required
6. If focus on retention, processing may suffer
7. ADHD/WM impaired children become more
hyperactive as cognitive load increases
Cognitive Load and Span
Increasing cognitive load
Cognitive Load
1. Switching and amount of information
increase the time to complete the processing
2. Environmental distractions add to cog. load
3. Irrelevant thoughts adds to cognitive load
4. Cognitive load is the main determinant of
retention in WM (and STM)
5. In experiments with very high load, children
can typically retain one item of information
Task Switching (Time Sharing)
1. Switching is a core, general executive process
2. To retain info. in WM, one must frequently switch
from processing to refreshing the info.
3. If the processing (load) is demanding, there will be
less switching and more info. will be lost
4. Theoretically, when cognitive load consumes all of
WM; all info. is lost (Barrouillet, 2011)
5. Switching is difficult for young children
6. Example: remember steps while completing an
online task
Cognitive Load in the Classroom
1. Three sources of cognitive load
1. The materials and their content
2. Instructional methods and teacher behaviors
3. The learner’s internal processing
2. Consult with teachers about this
1. Explain WM and cognitive load
2. Talk about supporting student by reducing
cognitive load
See Handout
Cognitive Load in the Classroom
1. Instruction easily overloads WM
1. By the nature of the material
2. By the manner it is presented
2. Focus on designing curriculum and
instruction that reduces cognitive load
1. Direct Instruction example
WM Classroom Overload Examples
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Long, complex, inconsistent verbalization
Requiring two processes simultaneously
No time for processing or rehearsal
No external memory aids
Noisy learning environment
No or limited scaffolding (learning supports)
Disorganized presentations
Too many concurrent demands
More Overload Examples
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Excessive length
Unfamiliar and not meaningful content
Demanding mental activities
Need to integrate information
Keeping track of steps while doing task
Tasks that require a lot of switching of
attention
Reducing Cognitive Load
1. See handout
2. Well designed instruction reduces load
3. Or, allow processing without need to
remember; e.g. facts in writing are available
4. Or, processing reminders are available
5. Teach students to alternate between
processing and refreshing
6. Students learn under low load conditions
Reducing Cognitive Load
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Only one step, process at a time
Allow time for processing and rehearsal
Allow self-paced processing
Provide external memory aids
Quite learning environment
Organized materials and presentations
Worked, partially-completed examples
1. Keep adding more for student to complete
Reducing Cognitive Load
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Sequence material from simple to complex
Present material in an integrated way
Include visual presentation
Side by side information (being able to see as
all the information in an integrated fashion)
better than stacked information
5. Avoid load that is not related or necessary to
the learning (extraneous load)
WM and Automaticity
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Mastery or fluency reduces cognitive load
Reading decoding & reading comprehension
Math problem solving better with fluency
Written language better with fluency
Automaticity equals faster processing and
ability to focus on higher level of processing
instead of basic skills
6. LTM prior knowledge, expertise, and
mastery support automaticity
Reducing Cognitive Load at Home
1. You can also apply some of the
classroom recommendations
2. Could cognitive overload be causing
some assignment completion problems
at home? How?
Skills to Teach Students for
Reducing Cognitive Load
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Ask for help and repetition
Take notes; use post its
Be organized
Don’t self-overload; one task/step at a time
Learn to use memory aids
How to switch between processing and
rehearsal (WM exercises good for teaching
this strategy)
Cognitive Load Discussion
1. How do you recognize in yourself when you
are experiencing cognitive overload?
2. What are signs of cognitive overload in a
child?
3. Why/how does cognitive overload reduce
learning and impair performance?
4. What is an effective executive WM strategy
of trying to cope with high cognitive load?
Metamemory Overview
1. Teach child how memory works and its
limitations
2. Inform child of personal strengths and
weaknesses
3. Teach child self-awareness
4. Teach about how we can control memory
Video I
Why is Metamemory Training
Essential?
1. Without it, there is:
1. Less motivation and cooperation
2. Continued misconceptions and frustration
3. Less maintenance and generalization
More on Metamemory
1. This is ongoing through sessions
2. Always help child understand why, when,
where it works or will benefit (conditional
knowledge)
3. Always show the child the data
4. Reinforce progress
5. Child should become expert on memory
6. The older the child, the more metamemory
Demonstrating Efficacy of Interventions
1. Differs by age level
2. Lower Level: Memorize word list versus
memorize list while visualizing the object
3. Upper Level: Organizational strategy
1. Memorize random words
2. Memorize words arranged in categories
3. Dramatic improvement is convincing
4. Important for maintenance I
II
5. How else can you document efficacy for
trainee?
Discussion
• Give examples of weak metamemory that you
have observed.
• How might poor metamemory lead to
ineffective memorization attempts?
WM Strategies: Rehearsal
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This is the most fundamental strategy
It is necessary for both WM and LTM
Keeps active in WM; allows more LTM encoding
Most have by age 10; 1st graders can learn
Students with severe memory problems can not
maintain sequence during verbal rehearsal
6. Academic benefits if taught classroom wide
7. Rehearsal can also be an exercise
WM Rehearsal Strategies
(also for LTM)
1. Goal: Maintain until WM done or
encoded
2. Serial and cumulative repetitive process
3. First aloud, then subvocal
4. Increase length of list as student
improves
5. Good maintenance of strategy if
overlearned
Rehearsal (Strategy) Training Steps
1. Serial: present all items at once
2. Cumulative: Repeat first word until next
delivered then add next word to the
repetition
3. First aloud, then whisper, then subvocal,
then check to see if student using
4. Student needs to learn when to use this
5. Practice training student to do cumulative
Using Rehearsal with Switching
1. Switching back and forth between the
processing and rehearsal
2. Switching with rehearsal helps maintain the
information in STM while processing the
same or other information
3. Require trainee to use rehearsal with
switching for most WM exercises
4. Switching is embedded in all WM exercises
Rehearsal as an Exercise
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Goal is to build span and maintain sequence
Other goal: Some oral-to-oral WM practice
Have student repeat sequence 4-5 times
Listen to see if student maintains correct
sequence; “answer” is not necessary
5. Have the student say the words faster
6. Can be serial or cumulative
Material for Rehearsal Exercises
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Use a variety of stimuli
Letters phonemes, numbers, words
Non-words are ideal
Require aloud rehearsal when child
can not maintain sequence
Chunking Strategy
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Chunk items to be remembered as a whole
Combining numbers, letters, or words
Spelling: letters in syllable become a chunk
Chunks become patterns in LTM
Make list longer as training proceeds
Continue until chunking is automatic
Chunks expand WM capacity
Criteria for Face-to-Face WM Exercises
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Same as for online WM exercises
Is adaptive
Clearly requires WM
Consistently places high demands on WM
Practice on a regular, ongoing basis
Some of these tasks used to measure WM
If meets these criteria, should improve WM
Face-to-Face WM Exercises
1. Compliance with online training is a concern
2. Oral responding not allowed with online
training
3. A trainer, parent, or peer administers these;
some can be self-administered
4. With all exercises, require a longer span as
progress is made
Using Math to Build WM
• Complete calculations
• Remember the answers in sequence
4+3=7
9–3=6
8 + 2 = 10
Response: 7, 6
• With groups, call on one student randomly
for response
• Practice
Using Math Flashcards to Build WM
1. Practice for everyone
2. Trainee must use cumulative rehearsal
3. Best to use more than one operation in
same deck
4. How should calculation errors be
handled?
N-Back Task (Exec. WM)
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Found to have corresponding growth in brain
Challenging task but easily administered
Remember stimulus n-items back
Do it repetitively
Deck of cards ideal; prevents practice effects
Parents and children can practice at home
n-back task
What strategy would you teach the child for succeeding
at this?
9. Improvement will be slow at this task
10. See Training Manual p. 43; HSR Lesson 20
N-Back Procedures Summary
1. Display items one at a time for 1-2 seconds
2. Start over after 1st error
3. Should get 10 consecutive correct 3 times
before going to next N
4. 5 – 10 minutes, 4 times per week
5. More challenging: A double n-back
6. Establish baseline
7. Encourage strategy use
8. What other materials can be used?
9. Two-way practice for all; verbalize strategy
Counting Span
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Make up cards with random number of dots
Dots of a different color are distractors
Count the number of items on each card
Remember the total on each card in correct
sequence
Last Word
1. Found to have a high correlation with reading
comprehension
2. Not used as a training exercise in research
3. Must remember the last words in each of a
series of sentences.
4. Must answer a question about each; this is
the processing part
WM Exercises for Young Children
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Use age-appropriate stimuli to practice rehearsal
For visual-spatial sequences, use letters on cards, numbers on
cards, pictures of objects, or actual objects.
3. Steps:
1. Present each item for two seconds, then hide it
2. After all items are presented, child says items in sequence
3. Teach the child to use rehearsal to maintain the sequence
4. Also use objects without requiring rehearsal. For example, present
5 small toys for 10 seconds. Then remove them and place them
with a larger group of toys. Then ask the child to point the ones
that were displayed previously. For a strategy, teach the child to
name each target toy/object when they are displayed.
Exercises by Age
Young Child (8 & under)
• More Simple Span
• Rehearsal
• Counting Span
• Memory for Objects
(not in sequence)
• Math flashcards
• Pointing as Directed
• Visual-Spatial Grid
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Older Individual
More Complex Span
Rehearsal
Last Word
Pointing as Directed
N-Back
Math Flashcards
Pointing as Directed
Discussion
• Which of the WM face-to-face exercises seem
easy to administer?
• Which of the WM face-to-face exercises do
you believe would be the most beneficial?
Other Cognitive Processing
Interventions that Support WM
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Attention
Executive functions, such as planning
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing speed
Fluid reasoning
Attention: Self-Monitoring
1. Teacher, or device carried by student, cues student
at variable intervals, such as 5 minutes
2. Ratings: 2-Completely on task; 1-Partially on task;
0-Completely off task
3. Teacher can also provide rating alongside student’s;
student receives bonus point when ratings match
4. Set a points goal that student is working for, easy at
first, then keep adjusting upward
5. Two options; entire interval is best
Executive Functions
1. See McCloskey for other EF interventions
2. Developing planning improves math
performance
3. Discuss benefits of plans
4. Develop plans
5. Verbalize them
6. Implement them and evaluate
Fluid Reasoning
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Problem solving
Categorizing
Similarities and differences
Games that require reasoning and
recognizing relationships
Oral Language
1. Closure procedures
2. Categorizing words
3. Create a variety of sentences using same
words
4. Synonyms and antonyms
5. Paraphrasing
6. Language therapy
Phonological Processing
1. Phonemic awareness interventions very
effective .86 effect size (the earlier the
better)
2. Oral at first, then with written material
3. Rhyming; isolating phonemes; identifying
phonemes; deleting phonemes; categorizing
common phonemes; segmenting phonemes
that comprise words; and blending
phonemes into words
Processing Speed
• Video Games
WM Accommodations
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Extended testing time
Repeating information
Repeating information in a simplified manner
Providing written checklists and reminders of
step-by-step procedures
One task at a time
Slow down presentation
Preferential seating to reduce distraction
Provide prompts and cues
Written Language and WM
1. Signs of WM overload during written
expression: omitting words, repeating words,
forgetting what was going to say, can‘t start
2. Extreme: can’t get ideas into words on paper
3. Writing requires lots of executive WM; lots of
switching, updating, and inhibition
Written Language Modifications
1. Have the student express it orally first
2. Teacher “stores” it and says what student
said as student writes
3. Or, teacher writes part of sentence so that
student just needs to use closure to finish
4. Teach learner to switch back and forth
between rehearsal and writing
More Written Language Mods.
1. Shorten writing assignment
2. Allow shorter sentences
3. Allow opportunity to revise after feedback
provided
4. Allow abbreviations and symbols in first draft
5. Provide notes, note-taker, or partially
completed class notes in classes where notetaking is required
WM and Math
1. Math demands a lot of both WM and LTM
2. Signs of WM overload during math: finger
counting; computation errors when facts
known; ignoring the signs; can’t do it
mentally; confused by story problems
3. Visual-Spatial WM exercises will help math
performance improve
Mathematics Modifications
1. Lighten the load by allowing written step-bystep procedures
2. Help to identify story problem words that
indicate the math procedures involved
3. Allow access to arithmetic fact tables
4. No timed math tests
5. Allow calculators
WM and Basic Reading Skills
1. Support student during decoding & blending
2. Prompt by saying first phoneme or syllable
3. Say the segmented phonemes/syllables
slowly after student has sounded them out
4. Have student say blended word smoothly
again after correct pronunciation
5. Rehearsal and chunking training should be
beneficial; especially rehearse nonwords
WM and Reading Comprehension
1. Student previews and skims the passage to
activate relevant prior knowledge so that
long-term memory supports WM
2. If substituted word is consistent with
meaning, do not interrupt to correct
3. Have student pause after each sentence and
paragraph to reflect on its meaning
4. Test comprehension, not long-term memory
by asking questions after each paragraph
WM and Taking Notes
1. Reduce quantity by teacher-supplied partial
notes
2. Have a note-taker
3. Student learns to use some shorthand,
symbols, and abbreviations
WM and Automaticity
1. Automaticity, mastery, and fluency reduce
cognitive load
1. Reading decoding and reading comprehension
2. Math problem solving
3. Written language
1. Organization and coordination
4. Long-term memory structures free up WM
5. Automaticity equals faster processing
Consultation Practice
1. Pick a WM strategy, exercise, or
accommodation.
2. How would you go about convincing a
classroom teacher to try teaching or using it?
3. How would you teach the teacher to use it?
LTM Intervention Approaches
1. Working memory (enhances LTM encoding)
2. Executive functions; metamemory
3. Strategies and mnemonics to make better
use of existing abilities
4. There are no LTM exercises
5. Memory aids and accommodations
6. Effective instruction, such as DI
7. Health and physical variables
Strong WM Supports
Encoding and Retrieval
1. Reducing the “cognitive load” on the
learner’s WM allows more encoding
2. A stronger WM can handle the cognitive load
introduced by LTM strategies
3. Thus, students with deficient LTM but normal
WM should also receive WM exercises and
strategies
LTM Interventions
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These are evidence-based; brain-based
One-on-one, small group, classroom wide
Includes direct and consultation/training
Through trained parents/teachers sometimes
Kindergarten through adulthood
Some tied with academic skills & study skills
Concerns About LT Memory Interventions
1. Some strategies don’t generalize well
1. Specific to task and content
2. With multiple steps, learning a strategy can
overload WM
3. Increased metamemory is necessary
4. Far transfer to academics; less of a problem
than with WM training
Weak LTM Strategies
1. Not all educational practices are actually
effective,
2. Acronyms such as HOMES
3. Cramming
4. Review
5. Rehearsal
Support for LTM Interventions
1. Consistent with neuroanatomy
2. Consistent with what is known about
memory processes
3. Have a theoretical basis
4. Have supporting research
LTM General Principles
1. Based on neuropsychology and research
2. See link
3. Select two principles that are so important
that they should be applied with all learners,
even those without and LTM deficit. Why are
these two principles so important?
Dehn’s Big Six LTM
Intervention Principles
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6.
Deeper processing; e.g. elaboration
Visualization; e.g. dual encoding
Organization; e.g., semantic clustering
Associations, linking; e.g., mnemonics
Review and retrieve; e.g., testing effect
Metamemory
Selecting LTM Interventions
1. Identify strengths and weaknesses
1. Visual vs verbal
2. Episodic vs semantic
2. Is there a process weakness: encoding,
consolidation, storage, retrieval
3. Consider “cause” risk factor
4. Trial and error: use data to figure out what
works
To Select Methods, Also Consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Learner’s needs, goals, and priorities
Related cognitive processing weaknesses
The severity of the memory deficits
How well the strategy generalizes
The extent of practice required
Learner’s age and overall cognitive ability
Learner’s level of metamemory, executive
functioning, and strategy use
Dual Encoding
1. Instructors should make it both verbal and
visual or give students time to recode
2. Can be done independently as well
3. Instruct students to visualize verbal info.
4. Instruct students to name/describe visual
5. Why does it work?
Visualization
1. The process of visualizing verbal information
2. For young children, teacher/trainer may
provide picture of or describe an image
3. Others should visualize and then describe
4. Retrieved as a visual-spatial item; leads to
recall of verbal information
5. For best results create effective visual images
6. Practice visualizing word list
Linking
1. Linking two items to be remembered
together in an image is effective
2. But linking while using the structure of
mnemonic is more effective because the
items are then associated with something
you won’t forget
3. Practice linking word list
4. Verbal linking is okay; but it is better with an
image
Visual Images That Are Effective
1. Should be linked/interactive, not just
imagined side-by-side
2. Funny, weird, etc.
3. Personal
4. Focused
5. Created by user
Visualizing and Reading
Comprehension
1. Direct student to visualize while reading
2. Should pause frequently and deliberately
create imagery if this does not happen
automatically
3. Have student describe the images (different
than verbally retelling the story)
Reading: Imagining Self in Scene
1. Imagining yourself in the scene, viewing
things as if you were actually there
1. Imagine details and feelings
2. For literature, social studies
2. Why does it work?
Organization
1. Organize information in a manner that makes
sense to self
2. Good for both WM and LTM
3. Examples: a timeline, by subject, category,
etc.
4. Why does it work?
Semantic Clustering
1.
2.
3.
4.
Group items by category
Objects or words
Clusters become chunks in memory
Have student focus on memorizing the name
of the clusters
5. When item recall fails, recall cluster and think
of items in that category until recognized
Visual Mnemonics
1. History of Mnemonics
2. Different from visualizing
3. Link information to something already known that
will not be forgotten
4. Acts as a scaffold or bridge
5. Involves pairing images that convey meaning
6. Why do they work?
Loci (The Palace Technique)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Romans matched items with a route
Evolved into the Palace method
How the competitors use this approach
https://youtu.be/PIg73ppoVZw
See video (Andi Bell on youtube)
Same locations can be used again with different
items
7. Pick or create your palace; can have more than
one
Loci with Children
1. With children, use items in their bedroom
2. Or rooms in their house
3. Use items/rooms in sequence so nothing is
forgotten
4. Have them follow visualization rules
5. Suggest associations as needed
Loci Practice
A mythical nation exports these products:
– Gold
– Horses
– Cotton
– Diamonds
– Lumber
– Snakes
– Computers
Keyword
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Highly effective; effect size of 1.6
Combines auditory and visual
First, the acoustical link (keyword)
Then, image of linked items interacting
To retrieve, think of keyword first
LD do better when keyword & image
provided
Keyword Practice
1. Video illustrates a “double” keyword
2. Use keywords for Denver, Colorado
3. Single Keyword practice with Spanish vocab:
1. Vaca = cow
2. Carta = letter
3. Escalera = ladder
4. Make the images unique, interactive, but
focused on the keyword and meaning
Elaboration
1. Elaboration is explicit, conscious linking of
prior knowledge with new information
1. “Fire together, wire together” principle
2. Also, deeper processing
2. Strengthens encoding, organization,
consolidation, retrieval
3. Teachers should provide for young child but
can be done independently by older
students
Elaboration
1. Give a teacher an example of how to use
elaboration when teaching about a new
country in Africa
Elaboration: Why Question
• With self application, answering the why
question is most effective
• Student asks and answers:
– “Why does this make sense” or
– “Why is this true”
Elaboration and Reading
Comprehension
1. Student previews and skims the passage
2. Student thinks about what he/she knows
about the topic
3. Student pauses after each paragraph,
identifies the most important information
4. Students asks and answers the “why”
question about that important piece
5. An alternative is KWL
Periodic Review with
Expanding Interval
1. Reviewing strengthens memories, but can
also change them
2. For tests, at least 3 reviews are
recommended and not on the same day
3. Cover up answers and force retrieval
4. Do not guess wildly when reviewing (error
learning)
5. Expanding interval works best
1. Because it’s better if it takes effort to recall
Expanding Interval Review
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
More efficient than massed/daily review
Strengthens neural pathways
Increases learning by 15%
Builds on remembered information
Supports consolidation & semantic memory
Information must actually be retrieved; best when
effortful retrieval needed
7. Review should be about the time information is
beginning to decay
1. E.g., 1, 2, 4 days, 1, 2, 4 week intervals
The Retrieval Principle
1. Retrieve from LTM, not STM
2. More effective than just reviewing
3. More effective when info is partially forgotten
and it takes effort to retrieve
4. Also strengthens recall for related info.
5. Supports consolidation and reconsolidation
6. Why does it work?
7. Explain to an adolescent how to apply this
principle
Periodic Testing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Extremely effective
First quiz immediately or within a day
Expanding intervals like periodic review
Not limited to items actually tested
Can be self-testing
Why does it work?
Can be self-testing
Six-Year Old Case Study Concerns
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Learning colors, letters, and numbers
Inconsistent performance
Recognizing and generating rhyming words
Difficulty learning to read
Doesn’t remember directions
Difficulty getting started on a task
Word retrieval problems
Math learning difficulties
Six-Year Old Case Risk Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Blood clot in umbilical cord
Abusive father; stressful home environment
ADHD
Speech/language delay and disorder
Seizures (left frontal lobe)
Six-Year Old Case Diagnoses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ADHD
Language Disorder, with word retrieval probs.
LD
Seizure Disorder
Placed under OHI
Six-Year Old Previous Interventions
1.
2.
3.
4.
RTI Math: Failed to respond adequately
Tutoring at home by grandmother
Earobics
Phonemic awareness training
Six-Year Old Assessment Results
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Full Scale IQ of 95
Executive dysfunctions
Weak STM, especially visuospatial
Working memory borderline low average
Weak long-term memory
1. Encoding
2. Consolidation
3. Retrieval (Severe word retrieval problems)
Six-Year Old Case Interventions
1. Prioritize memory components/processes for
intervention. Pick top three
2. Pick six exercises/strategies that you would
begin with
3. Why would you pick these six?
Severe Memory Impairments
1. Less cognitive load
2. Rely primarily on verbal or visual-spatial with
recoding
3. Longer, more intense training
4. More practice with strategies
5. Modified exercises and strategies
6. More support, e.g. prompts
7. Deliver information “just in time”
8. Reduce error learning
9. Reduce interference
10. Recognition testing
Severe Memory Impairments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Avoid WM overload when training
Tie more directly to academic and daily skills
More daily life memory functions
Limit number of strategies
Mnemonics may be less effective
Train parent to support
Aides, accommodations, technology
External Memory Aides
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Diaries or journals
Memory books or memory notebooks
Alarms and timers
Reminders provided by computers
Schedules and assignment calendars
Checklists with step-by-step procedures
Folders for organizing notes and materials
Lists of activities that need to be completed
Step-by-step instructions for using a strategy
Digital Memory Book
1. Contains important information that is difficult
to remember or needed on a daily basis
2. Schedule (for everything)
3. Procedures for completing tasks
4. Procedures for memory methods
5. Contact information
6. Photos
7. Personalize and continue to add to
Reducing Interference
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Avoid similarity and too much info at once
Switch topics
Take breaks
Take naps
Study before sleep
Quiet environment
Reducing the Learning of Errors
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reduce learning of errors
Unlearning of errors is difficult
Especially for severe amnesic cases
Prevent guessing; supply most of the answer
Procedural (Implicit) Learning
1. Cases of amnesia, partial amnesia, severe
LTM impairments can learn and remember
procedures better than explicit memories
2. Won’t remember learning it or that they
know it but can perform when prompted to
do so
3. Thus, do more procedural training
4. Example: Case with lead poisoning
Context Cues
1. Within the first week or so, retrieval of info is
from episodic memory, not semantic
2. Episodic cues facilitate recall: smell, objects,
colors, feelings, etc.
3. Testing in an environment other than the
actual learning environment lowers test
scores by as much as 30%
4. Teach students to recall the environment
when they are tested elsewhere
Accommodations for Testing
1. Inform student of exam dates well in advance
to allow for periodic review
2. Provide review sheets in same format as tests
3. Provide notes of lectures
4. Allow students procedural checklists
5. Recognition testing: word banks, etc.
6. Extended time on testing; notes during test
Improving Recall During Tests
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Testing accommodations
Context cues
Elaboration
Take time
Recognition
Health Supports for Memory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Reduce risk of concussion
Control seizures
Treat disorders; medication for depression
No illicit drugs
Maintain steady glucose level
Exercise
Reduce stress and anxiety
Interference breaks
Diet and Glucose Levels
1. Hippocampus functions best when there are
average to moderately high levels of glucose
2. It is important during both encoding and
retrieval
Sleep Benefits
1. Sleep deprivation harms recall
2. Naps enhance recall
3. Study, review, practice just before sleep leads
to better recall
1. Retroactive interference eliminated
2. Material ready for consolidation
Benefits of Exercise
1. Many studies document the benefits of
aerobic exercise for maintaining and
improving long-term memory in adults
2. Only a couple of studies with children
3. However, children have the same LTM brain
structures. Thus, adult benefits should apply
to teens and children.
Medications
1. Methylphenidate improves ability to focus
and WM performance
2. For LTM in adults with MCI or Alzheimer’s
medication reduces/slows memory loss
3. These medications may help undiagnosed
adults
4. Cholinesterase inhibitor
5. Memantine or Namenda
The Mnemonic Classroom
1. Is a memory-focused classroom
2. Focus on instructional methods that support
all memory processes
3. Teacher has memory expertise; understands
how LTM functions
4. Educates students about memory
5. Teaches memory strategies/mnemonics
6. Conveys message that you can improve your
memory
The Mnemonic Classroom
1. Teacher uses instructional methods that
support long-term memory
2. Is aware of what the hippocampus needs
3. Provides interference breaks
4. Reminds students to be memory-focused
5. Knows LTM General Principles
6. Mnemonic instruction improves academic
learning
Teacher or Student Strategies in
Mnemonic Classroom
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Repetition
Dual encoding, mainly visualizing
Elaboration
Expanding interval review
Testing/Self-Testing
Context cues
Reducing interference
The Mnemonic Classroom: Examples
of Metamemory Instruction
1. There are different types of memory: short-term and
long-term; visual and auditory; and personal and
academic.
2. Simply desiring to remember something does not
make it more memorable; it takes effort, some kind of
strategy
3. Using effective memory strategies actually save study
time in the long run.
4. Remembering is easier when the information being
studied is organized.
5. Remembering is easier when information is encoded
both visually and verbally.
How to Encourage Teachers to
Be Mnemonic Based
1. What approach would you use to get the
classroom teacher to “buy in”?
2. How might you facilitate and support
implementation in the classroom?
College Case Study
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Cancerous brain tumors at age 16
Affected vision and memory
Originally an A-B student, now failing
Both episodic memory & semantic probs.
Prospective memory problems
Metamemory not realistic
Working memory okay
College Case Strategies
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Preview text, elaborate with “why” question
Metamemory and interference breaks
Self-made review sheet
Periodic review schedule
Self-testing (retrieval)
Testing strategies to enhance retrieval
Memory book
College Case Outcomes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Started on academic probation
2.5 at end of first semester with intervention
3.5 at end of two-year college program
Student gained confidence
Continued residing with parents
See his plan on pages 75-79
Another college student
High school student feedback (see Hannah)
Memory Training for Individuals
For working memory and long-term memory
Parent consultation and training available
www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com
[email protected]
608-781-0532
Memory Interventionist Training
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
For psychologists and related professionals
Background in psychoeducational assessment required
Taught by Dr. Dehn
Taught once per year, beginning in fall
CEU’s from Kids, Inc.
36-hour course
Includes neuropsych assessment of memory
Case study with supervision
Details: email [email protected]
www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com