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HIST 1301
UNIT 1
Chapters 1,2,3,4
Chapter 1
Three Societies on the
Verge of Contact
Most accepted theory of where and
how the first settlers came to North
America
Crossed land bridge called
Beringia (Siberia) following
large mammals
Kennewick Man
His discovery called into question several assumptions that
scientists had held
Paleo-Indian era (15,00010,000 BCE)
• one thing we know for sure is that
the greatest number of people came
between 20,000 and 10,000 BCE
•Paleo-Indians – what we call the
initial North American settlers
•Wide range of life styles
•Many languages and belief systems
•Agriculture allowed them to remain
in a single area for years
© iStockphoto.com/Joe Potato
The Archaic Era: Forging an
Agricultural Society (10,000–
2,500 years ago)
•The development of maize was a
remarkable feat of genetic
engineering.
•Sedentary existence – stayed in one
place long enough to grow their
food—allowed early Americans to
start permanent villages
•Maize enabled the Olmec to
establish the Mesoamerican
civilization in what is now present-day
Mexico
© iStockphoto.com/Carla Lisinki
The Pre-Columbian Era: Developing Civilizations (500 BCE–1492 CE)
Maya – Central America and the
Yucatan
• cities
• written language
• numerical system with zero
• accurate calendar
© iStockphoto.com/Soren Pilman
Aztec
•central and southern Mexico
•capital Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) 100,000 +
•very warlike
•religion required human sacrifice
• Aztecs had a large state society but their gods craved
human flesh, especially human hearts.
•Job of priests:
• To satisfy craving of gods for human flesh
• If craving not satisfied, gods would destroy the world.
• Prisoners held down on top of pyramid temples, heart cut
out still beating, offered to gods.
• Body of prisoner rolled down pyramid, head cut off and
displayed, flesh redistributed for meat.
• Cortez found 136,000 heads of sacrificial victims
Chaco Canyon
- Anasazi (Pueblo)
- known for Great Houses
Mississippians
Accurate
calendar
pyramids
Cahokia
- eight miles east of St. Louis
- largest Mississippian city
Why did these early pre-Columbian
civilizations decline?
• Outgrew their capacity to produce food???
• Battles with enemy tribes???
• Droughts???
Tribes of North America,
1492
Social similarities:
• clan system – large family groups
• mostly matrilineal – children
typically followed the clan of their
mother; a man, when married,
moved into the clan of his wife
Religion:
• polytheistic: many deities
• animistic: supernatural beings
inhabit all objects and govern their
actions
North America in 1492
“Their cabins are in the shape of tunnels [tonnelles] or arbors, and are covered with the bark of trees. They are from
twenty-five to thirty fathoms long, more or less, and six wide, having a passage-way through the middle from ten to
twelve feet wide, which extends from one end to the other. On the sides there is a kind of bench, four feet high,
where they sleep in summer, in order to avoid the annoyance of the fleas, of which there are great numbers. In winter
they sleep on the ground on mats near the fire, so as to be warmer than they would be on the platform.” –French
explorer Samuel de Champlain, 1616, referring to an Iroquois longhouse
Iroquois Confederacy
political and trading entity of northeastern tribes
© Stock Montage, Inc./Alamy
The High Plains
The Northwest
© iStockphoto.com/Alex Pitt
European observer (1599) description of Pueblo
“live very much the same as we do”
Why?
They were one of the few Indian societies to have men, not women,
practice agriculture.
Property
Property
• Could not be privately owned
• Could be used by everyone when needed
Africa in the Fifteenth Century
• most of the immigrants
who came to North
America between the 16th
and 18th centuries came
as slaves from Africa
• Greatly affected by Islam
Ghana was especially famous
for its gold
Mali : Timbuktu became
Africa’s cultural and
artistic capital
© Asante mask, from Ghana (gold), African/ Private Colelction, Photo © Boltin Picture Library/ The Bridgeman Art Library
Majority of Africans that
came to America came
from lower Guinea
• possessed slaves themselves
– war or debt – not for life
• most did not embrace Islam
Europe was an economic and
intellectual backwater in comparison to
Chin, the countries of Northern Africa,
and parts of the Middle East up until the
12th Century.
Feudalism
Feudalism was the system of loyalties and protections during the Middle
Ages. As the Roman Empire crumbled, emperors granted land to nobles
(vassal) in exchange for their loyalty. These lands eventually developed into
manors. A manor is the land owned by a noble and everything on it. A typical manor
consisted of a castle, small village, and farmland. The laborers in the feudal
system were called serfs who were both protected and controlled by the
vassal of the estate.
© Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY
Four causes of the decline of feudalism…
1. Expanding trade: mercantilism -- theory that a nation’s prosperity
was determine by the total volume of its trade
2. The Crusades: series of campaigns in which Europeans marched
to the Middle East in an effort to take control of the Holy Land
which was under the control of the Muslims
3. The Black Death – bubonic plague, which started to spread in
1346 and eventually killed one-third of all Europeans
4. The Hundred Years’ War – war between France and England in
the 14th Century over who controlled the French throne
Role of Women in Europe
Different from Africa or Indians of the
Americas because women rarely
participated in political life or tilled
the fields
Expansion of European cities
during the 13th through 15th
Centuries gave the serfs the ability
to earn money at the market (by
selling their surplus agriculture),
which allowed them to purchase
their freedom from the declining
feudal lords
The Renaissance
About 1450, European scholars became more interested in studying the world around
them. Their art became more true to life. They began to explore new lands. The
new age in Europe was eventually called “the Renaissance.” Renaissance is a
French word that means “rebirth.” Historians consider the Renaissance to be the
beginning of modern history.
The Decline of Catholic Europe
•
Two impulses collided to challenge the authority of the Catholic church
• Christian humanism -- a renewed belief in the importance of the singular
individual as, opposed to the institution of the Church – new interest in the
sciences, which began to challenge Christianity as a worldly authority
• Humans’ relationship with God – selling of indulgences – practice pf popes
using their authority to limit the time a person’s soul spent in purgatory, in
exchange for cash
The Decline of Catholic Europe
Martin Luther took advantage of the invention of the
printing press to advocate that scripture be read in local
vernacular languages like German and English rather than
Latin.
Protestant Reformation
Invention of the printing press
Martin Luther: salvation by faith alone
John Calvin: predestination
Central authority was the Bible, not Church leaders
The Reformation was important for two reasons:
1. It hastened the development of nationalism by
fragmenting the unity of Catholic authority over Europe
2. It triggered several vicious battles over religion –
provoked people to leave Europe in search of religious
freedom
Europe in 1492
• Spain was the most powerful nation in Europe
• France was the largest
• Portugal had the advantage of superior nautical
craftsmanship
• The printing press helped democratize
knowledge, allowing scientists to share
discoveries and news in many vernacular
languages
• England not as powerful as most of the rest of
the countries because it had been divided by
internal religious wars
Chapter 2
Contact and Settlement
1492–1660
Reasons Europeans
sought to explore lands
outside Europe:
• Alleviate a trade deficit (and
increase wealth)
• Spread Christianity
Marco Polo was the first to
suggest a western route to
the Orient
© iStockphoto.com/cornelius30
Prince Henry the
Navigator –
Portuguese – Eastern
route
Vasco da Gama – first to
sail around tip of Africa
to India
© EON IMAGES
Portuguese control of the island of Sao Tome
Led to the first modern
economy depended
primarily on slave
labor
Christopher Columbus
Italian that sailed for Spain – looking for
westward route to the Far East
Ended up off the North American coast
in the Bahamas
Called inhabitants Indios (Indians)
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY
Amerigo Vespucci
cartographer Martin Wardseemüller to label the new continent "America" in 1507
Somehow an account of a 1497 voyage was published, and Wardseemüller came to
believe that Vespucci had commanded the expedition and had reached the New
World before Christopher Columbus, who found the mainland in 1498.
Wardseemüller named the continent America and the label stuck.
Vespucci is said to have made a guess at the world's circumference that was accurate
within 50 miles. His real achievement seems to be that he concluded America had
to be a new continent and not the eastern part of Asia, as Columbus believed. An
honored citizen in Spain, Vespucci spent the years after his voyages as a maritime
official for King Ferdinand.
Balboa
First European to
discover the
Pacific Ocean
(South Sea – Mar
del Sur)
Magellan
First to circumnavigate the
world.
Killed in the Philippines
Line of Demarcation
Alberto Cantino, Fragment of
world map, 1502. This map
reflects the rivalry over 'wealth
of the Indies'. It was the first
map to show explicitly the papal
demarcation line separating
Portuguese (east of line) and
Spanish (west of line)
possessions according to the
Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494.
All of Brazil went to Portugal,
while Spain had claim to Central
and North America
Spanish Expansion into North America
Spain established the first colonies in North America
Conquistadors
- mostly minor noblemen who led private armies to the New
World
Encomienda
- tribute, usually payable in gold or slaves, demanded of
conquered Indian villages by the conquistadors
Viceroy
- representative of the Spanish crown who governed
conquered Indian villages
Cortes Conquers the Aztec
When Moctezuma first learned of the Spanish arrival, he believed that
Cortes might be Quetzalcoatl (keht sahl koh AHTL), an ancient god who
had returned to earth to control the Aztec kingdom. Moctezuma welcomed
the Spanish into Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital)
Pizarro
conquered the Inca in South
America (Peru)
The Inca gave Pizarro 24 tons of gold and
silver as a ransom for Athualpa, but he
was not released. The Spanish later tied
him to a stake and strangled him.
St. Augustine, Florida
important to Spanish as an
outpost guarding against attack
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Occupied by Spanish to
secure the region against
intruders
5 principal results of the initial Spanish conquest:
1. Financial
• Influx of minerals made Spain one of the wealthiest nations in the world
• Sudden abundance of silver caused inflation, which hurt European laborers and
landless agricultural workers and many were driven to emigrate to the
Americas in search of a new life
2. Biological
• Columbian Exchange – agricultural products, domesticated animals, and
microbial diseases crossed over from one civilization to the other
3. Racial
• Mestizo – mixture of
Spanish with Indian
• African slaves
introduced
4. Religious
• Spanish destroyed Indian temples and replaced them with Catholic
cathedrals
• Indians able to accept Catholic faith once it had been hybridized
(transforming Catholic saints into spiritual likenesses of their
preexisting gods and goddesses
5. Geopolitical
– The long reign of Elizabeth I stabilized the political situation in
England, so now England could participate wholeheartedly in New
World ventures
The French in the New World
Looking for Northwest Passage: river that would lead them through what is now
Canada to the Pacific Ocean
Never found Northwest Passage, but did find furs which helped them economically
Quebec founded in 1608
Courier de bois
England in the New World
4 key reasons why the English became more interested in
exploration in the mid-1500s
1. Religious: Queen Elizabeth I support of the Reformation turned
England into Europe’s leading opponent of the increasingly
powerful Catholic Spain
2. Social: impoverished seeking to escape poverty by leaving
England
3. Economic: looking for new markets for their cloth; looking for raw
materials
4. Geopolitical: Queen Elizabeth’s durability (50+ years); defeat of
Spanish Armada made England a sea power
England’s Wealth in the New
World
Came from:
1.Prolonged colonization
2.The development of substantial economies
3.The exploitation of agricultural resources
Roanoke
Colony established by Sir
Walter Raleigh (Lost
Colony)
What became of the colonists
left at the stockade on
Roanoke Island? No one
knows.
Two lessons from failure at Roanoke
1. Formula for successful English
colonization would not be quick
strikes for gold but rather a
plantation model that would
createt self-sustaining
settlements
2. More than one person needed to
fund the ventures – joint stock
companies (sold stock to
individuals to raise money)
Why is 1607 often regarded as the first year of
American history? (Virginia)
First permanent English settlement established at Jamestown
Captain John Smith put in charge to make settlement work.
Starving time
winter of 1609-1610 when many starved
Jamestown’s success depended on two things:
1. Indian relations
2. tobacco
Virginia
Tobacco was a currency, also used to
pay fines and taxes. For example,
persons encouraging slave
meetings were to be fined 1,000
pounds of tobacco; owners letting
slaves keep horses were fined 500
pounds tobacco; if a person wanted
to become married, he had to go to
the rector of his parish and pay the
man so many pounds of tobacco.
Virginia
At the age of twenty-one, Pocahontas
visited London, where she was
presented to King James I and the
court. In March 1617, she and her
husband, John Rolfe, departed for
home, but it soon became clear that
Pocahontas would not survive the
voyage. She died of pneumonia or
tuberculosis and was taken ashore
and buried far from her home.
Indentured Servants
•
Slaves cost too much so system of labor called indentured servitude was expanded
•
English and Irish poor sold their labor for four to seven years to a farmer who would
fund their voyage across the Atlantic
•
head right: 50 acres of land to any individual who paid their own passage
Growth of Jamestown had 3 major consequences:
1. Increased hostility with the Indians
2. Change to royal control (governor chosen by the King) because the
Virginia Company went bankrupt
• House of Burgesses – First colonial assembly
3. Introduction of African slavery
Maryland
Granted to Lord Baltimore by the King as a haven for
Catholics
First proprietary colony : colony overseen by a proprietor
who was allowed to control and distribute the land as
he wished
Toleration Act of 1649 : granted freedom of worship to
anyone who accepted the divinity of Jesus Christ
Massachusetts
Puritans
• Groups that thought England had not gone far enough in separating from the
Catholic Church: wanted to reform or purify the Church of England
•
•
Separatists: wished to separate completely from the Church of England
•
Mayflower: ship on which the separatists came to the New World
•
Ended up where they should not have been so they created the Mayflower
Compact (agreement for democratic rule in Massachusetts)
•
Settled the Plymouth Colony
•
Helped by local Indians the first winter – first Thanksgiving
Non-Separatist : led by John Winthrop
•
•
Massachusetts Bay Colony : “city upon a hill”
Politically, Massachusetts was a theocracy: believed in a state that forced all of its
inhabitants to hold a specific religious orthodoxy within an established church
Dissenters in Massachusetts
Roger Williams
• Founded Rhode Island
He preached first at Salem, then at
Plymouth, then back to Salem, always at
odds with the structured Puritans. When he
was about to be deported back to England,
Roger fled southwest out of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony, was
befriended by local Indians and eventually
settled at the headwaters of what is now
Narragansett Bay, after he learned that his
first settlement on the east bank of the
Seekonk River was within the boundaries
of the Plymouth Colony. Roger purchased
land from the Narragansett Chiefs,
Canonicus and Miantonomi and named his
settlement Providence in thanks to God.
Anne Hutchinson’s Trial
Anne Hutchinson, a married woman
who worked as a midwife, was
banished to Rhode Island from
Massachusetts after she dissented
against the church. Anne asserted
the ideology of Antinomianism, or
the philosophy that only God, not
ministers determined who
merited grace. Instead of a single
orthodox scripture, this belief
suggests that humankind’s
relationship with God was a
continual process of divine
revelation.
© North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy
Chapter 3
Expansion and Its Costs
Central ideas of the American Revolution
were founded on concepts that came from
the type of government called a
commonwealth that Oliver Cromwell wanted
to set up in England. It would be founded on
concepts like taxation only with
representation, limited government, and
antimonarchical beliefs.
The Restoration was the reestablishment of the
monarchy in England after the English Civil War.
It was significant for colonial North America
because King Charles II used the colonies to
tighten control of his leadership and to pay off
debts incurred during his fight to recover the
throne
Navigation Acts
Trade regulations that:
• dictated where colonial producers could ship
their goods,
• stipulated that colonists must transport their
goods in English ships, and
• listed a group of enumerated articles
(tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo) that colonists
could sell only to England.
Proprietary Colonies
Colonies owned and ruled by an individual or a
private corporation rather than by the Crown
Restoration Colonies
• Those created during and after the
Restoration
•
•
•
•
•
Carolina (North and South
New York
Pennysylvania
East and West Jersey (New Jersey)
Georgia (founded after the Restoration)
Carolina
• Eight proprietors
• Constitution drafted by the philosopher John Locke
• Failed because the proprietors misunderstood that the American
context of abundant land would not accommodate the hierarchical
society of England with its noble titles and haughty proprietors
• Distinction of being America’s first colony dependent on slave labor
• Rice was the main crop
• Northern and southern part very different - few lived in the
southern part because of diseases - split into North and South
Carolina in 1712
New York
• Began as a Dutch colony (New Netherland)
• Taken over by England in 1664 and King gave to his
brother, the Duke of York
Pennsylvania
• Founded by William Penn
• Quaker
• Individuals received an “inner light”
• No class distinctions
• Pacifist
• No hired ministers
• Rejected concept of original sin and predestination
• Women could transmit the truth of God’s word
• Penn attracted settlers by sending agents throughout
Europe to advertise
Georgia
• Founded after the Restoration – James Oglethorpe
• Chief motives for founding was to
• create a buffer between Spanish Florida and the
Carolinas and
• to create a haven for English debtors
• Grew slowly because:
• Charter stipulated that no one could own enough
land to develop a large-scale plantation
• Slavery prohibited
Where were the Spanish?
Main limitation of the Spanish was their unwillingness to develop
colonial settlements – preferred to bring home quick profits
New Mexico
• Pueblo Revolt – an uprising of several villages across New Mexico
– Spanish left for more than a decade
Florida
• English and French in close proximity
5 reasons why the situation of the Indians
deteriorated after 1660:
1. Land lust of the English colonists grew
2. Religious differences between the Indians and English
3. Cultural differences about land use, gender roles, and language
4. Both sides were willing to use violence to resolve conflict
5. European powers were viciously protective of their New World
holdings and their battleground was often the New World
•Middle ground
• where trading took place and the two groups
operated as equals
•Beaver Wars
•pitted Indian against Indian rather than the
Indians against the British
•Metacom’s War
•Plymouth, Mass. Bay, Rhode Island,
Connecticut
•Metacom killed in battle – head placed on a
stake and let stand in Plymouth town square
for 25 years
Bacon’s Rebellion (Virginia)
• Initiated because he was upset over Governor Berkeley’s failure to
quell Indian raids in the county
• Rebellion caused Berkeley to support laws known as Bacon’s
Laws
• Granted the franchise to all freemen
• Election for members of the legislature
• Greater representation in taxation
• These laws reduced the influence of the ruling elite in Virginia
• Bacon’s Rebellion resulted in:
• The Indians being pushed further west
The cultivation of sugar is labor intensive, and once the
Europeans had exhausted and exterminated native
population in the West Indies and South America,
Europeans began to import African Slaves to the New
World.
Problems with indentured servants:
• Many ran away once they landed in the New World
• Many died because of the climate
• Habitually sick and unable to work
• Earned their freedom after a time
• Less people willing to become indentured because
England's economy improved
The first major law concerning slavery in the colonies
stipulated that the condition of the mother determined
the condition of the child
1664 Maryland enacted an “anti-amalgamation” law that
outlawed interracial sex and marriage
Slave codes : laws that governed the lives of the slave
and how they were to be treated
Only two significant French
settlements in North
America were Quebec and
New Orleans.
Chapter 4
Expansion and Control
4 distinct regions that had
developed by 1700
New England
• Massachusetts
• Rhode Island
• New Hampshire
• Connecticut
Middle
•
•
•
•
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Chesapeake
• Maryland
• Virginia
Southern
• North Carolina
• South Carolina
• Georgia
New England
Diversified farming: a single home could farm
many different crops that would sustain the
household throughout the year
Lived in town and walked to their fields
Livestock allowed to graze on community-owned
land
Grew surplus agricultural goods to trade for tools
and other finished goods
Some small industries developed around
New England’s two principal products: fish
and timber
1/3 of all ships used by England were built
in New England by the mid 1700s
Triangular Trade:
trade between the
colonies, Africa,
and the West
Indies
Most of New
England’s increase
in population
attributed to high
birthrate in the
colonies
natural aristocracy
Merchants and wealthy landholders who made
their fortunes in the New World and were not
deemed special because of their titles
Dominated economic affairs and owned an
increasingly larger and larger percentage of the
area’s wealth
Commercial middlemen, farmers, and artisans
constituted the middle class (majority of pop.)
Slaves at bottom of social structure
halfway covenants
• Prosperity weakened the Puritan religion
• Baptized individuals who had never had a personal
conversion to Christ were counted as partial
members of the church and were allowed to have
their children baptized.
• Used to keep religion alive and bring more people
back into the fold
Salem Witchcraft Trials
(1692)
Had some basis in the
fear and anxiety over
how much society
was changing
20 executed
Division of Labor
Despite the decline of the church’s importance, the slow
growth of the cities, and the rise of New England, commerce
helped New Englanders maintain their commitment to family
life.
Sexual division of labor continued:
• women remained in charge of “indoor affairs” (raising
children, preparing food, cleaning house, doing laundry)
• men took charge of “outdoor affairs” (cultivating fields,
chopping wood, and conducting the daily business
transactions, such as buying horses and selling crops)
Middle Colonies
• Warmer climate
• Farms larger and farmers lived on their farms rather than in the
village
• Wheat was the biggest export
• New York and Philadelphia were the two seaports that were the
hubs of commerce
• Immigrants from Scotland, Ireland, Germany, and England
• Had the most diverse population
The Chesapeake
Economy:
• Tobacco was the chief crop
• Farmers did not diversify
• Hardly any developed industries
• Cities failed to develop
• People settled on farms rather than in cities or towns
Everyday Life
•Many more men than women until 1700
•High death rate
•After 1675, slavery replaced indentured servitude as
the preferred type of labor (40% by 1760)
•Declining number of indentured servants mean the
eventual decline of a class of free white people -few in the middle class
•Anglican Church prominent
The Southern Colonies
Economy
• Only two towns of any size were established – life was
so miserable that few colonists resided there
permanently
• Staple crops were tobacco, rice, and indigo – cotton
only after 1793 and the invention of the cotton gin by Eli
Whitney
• Large plantations with slave labor
• Little industrial development – relied on trade with
England for their industrial goods
Life
• Life expectancy short – many died before they were
twenty – for the most part, those who could live
elsewhere did
• Wealthy usually owned two homes: one on their
plantation (where they spent little time), and one in
either Charleston or Savannah
• Depth of religious commitment shallow
• Interest in public education limited – wealthy sent
children to England to be educated
• Stono Rebellion – strict slave codes – few slave revolts
The American Enlightenment
• A movement to prioritize the human capacity for reason as the
highest form of human attainment
• Questioning of many religious beliefs
• John Locke : “natural rights” of life, liberty, and property
• Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand
• Education
• America’s first college – Harvard
• Freedom of the press – John Peter Zenger
The Great Awakening
• America’s first large-scale religious revival
• Emphasized the notion that individuals could find
heaven if they worked hard enough (not just if they
were predestined) and that allowed emotional
expressions of religion
African Slavery
• Majority of slaves that came to New world went to
colonies controlled by Spain and Portugal
• Middle passage
• journey across the Atlantic Ocean
• kept below deck, away from fresh air
• sick slaves thrown overboard to try to prevent
diseases
• force-fed
• many different languages
• trip was 4 to 8 weeks
• one in four died during the trip
• Slavery most common in the Southern Colonies and the
Chesapeake, but was legal in all English colonies
• Stono Rebellion
• South Carolina
• Newly arrived slaves stole guns and headed towards Florida –
killed whites
• Negro Act passed in South Carolina, which consolidated all of the
separate slave codes into one code that forbade slaves from
growing their own food, assembling in groups, or learning to read
Attempted Expansion of English Control
• Salutary neglect
• A hands-off style of relations between the Crown and the
colonies
• The Crown would essentially ignore governance of its colonies
and enforcement of its trade laws so long as the colonies
continued to provide England with sufficient cash and produce.
• Glorious Revolution of 1688
• William and Mary’s ascension to the throne of England
• For the colonist, the result was looser governance by the
Crown and the removal of many of the proprietors who had
founded the colonies
The French and Indian War (1754-1763)
• English colonists moved deeper into the Ohio Valley, infuriating the
French
• George Washington sent to deter French from building forts but
defeated
• Known as Seven Year’s War in Europe
• Albany Congress
• Meeting of colonies to discuss the upcoming war
• Albany Plan: concept for the first-ever colonial union, drafted by
Benjamin Franklin – failed because colonist felt allegiance only to
their particular colony
• Treaty of Paris (1763)
• Ended the War
• English won
• France evicted from North America
• England got Canada and land to the Mississippi
• Spain got Louisiana
Pan Indianism
• Many of the tribes of Native America shifted from
favoring a tribal identity to assuming a racial one –
especially true in the northwest
• Pontiac’s Rebellion
• Significant because both natives and English were
brutal
• English attempted to introduce smallpox
• Indians deliberately poisioned drinking water
Macchu Picchu
Mayan numerical system
Anasazi
dwellings
Pizarro
Cortez
John Calvin
Martin Luther
Virginia
Connecticut
Massachusetts
Maryland
North
South
Carolina
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New
York
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Rhode Island
Tenochtitlan
astrolabe