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2014/10/9 PURPOSEFUL BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism only focus on observable behaviors and ignore what is happening in the brain But clearly what is happening in the brain is important A new approach, called purposive behaviorism, is proposed by Edward Tolman PSY6015 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES Lecture 5 and 6 – Information processing model PURPOSEFUL BEHAVIORISM Learning is an internal rather than external change Performance improved without reinforcement Reinforcement influences performance rather than learning GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Increasingly highlight the significance of perception, learning, and problem solving PURPOSEFUL BEHAVIORISM Behavior is purposive Expectations affect behavior Learning results in an organized body of information COGNITIVISM General assumptions Some learning processes may be unique to human beings Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that aren’t necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes People are actively involved in the learning process Knowledge is organized 1 2014/10/9 COGNITIVISM The focus of scientific inquiry must be on objective, systematic observations of people’s behaviors, but behaviors often allow reasonable inferences about unobservable mental processes COGNITIVISM Let’s try the following experiment Try to remember the sentences listed on the next page (without copying down!) Read the page after next to determine whether the sentences on that page appeared before INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Portrayed human learning as how computer processes information INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Learning Acquisition of new information or skills Long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience Memory Storage Encoding People learn by constructing general ideas, not learn by verbatim How they perceive the stimuli around them How they “put” what they’ve perceived into their memories How they “find” what they’ve learned when they need to use it Etc… IMPORTANT TERMS The jelly was in the kitchen The ants ate the jelly The ants ate the sweet jelly which was on the table The ants in the kitchen ate the jelly on the table The ants in the kitchen ate the sweet jelly The ants were on the table Focus on how people think about the information they receive from the environment Testing items The ability to recall previously acquired information The process of “putting” new information in memory The modification humans make when storing new information Involves form changing and simplifying Retrieval Finding out information previously stored in the memory 2 2014/10/9 SENSORY REGISTER SENSORY REGISTER The first “store” in the information processing process Responsible for holding incoming information long enough for it to undergo very preliminary cognitive processing Examples Capacity Forms of storage Visual and auditory Duration Moving your fingers quickly Catching back after wandering in class SENSORY REGISTER Very large <1 s for visual memory Around 2 s for verbal memory Quickly decayed or interfered by new information SENSORY REGISTER 8 C 4 D 5 B 2 W G 0 1 P 1 Y 4 G H 9 K 2 M Q 6 8 ATTENTION Focused cognitive processing of particular aspects of the environment Cocktail party phenomenon Limited capacity Only attended information goes into working memory ATTENTION Factors affecting attention Motion Size Intensity Novelty Incongruity Social cues Emotions Personal significance Can be both automatic and conscious Both capture and maintain attention 3 2014/10/9 WORKING MEMORY A component of memory where active thinking occurs WORKING MEMORY Central executive: Awareness or consciousness of the memory system Identifies information in the sensory register that warrants attention, saves the info for a longer period of time, and processes it further WORKING MEMORY Phonological loop A supervisory system Controls and monitors the flow and use of information throughout the memory system A short-term storage system for words and sounds Visuospatial sketchpad A short-term storage system for visual and spatial information WORKING MEMORY How large is the working memory capacity? What are your working memory capacities? Try it out yourselves! For an average person: 7±2 Any ways to enhance the capacity? How do we remember phone numbers? 2948-8829 Chunking WORKING MEMORY Duration: Limited Experiment by Peterson & Peterson (1959) Remember three consonant letters and then immediately asked to count backward by threes Participants recall consonant after 3 – 18 seconds Delay 3s 80% accuracy Delay 18s 10% accuracy Grouping small units into larger ones Can keep 3-5 meaningful units WORKING MEMORY Control processes: Organization Chunking Putting into story 山巔一石一壺酒 Retrieval Maintenance rehearsal Repeating information to keep it alive in working memory 4 2014/10/9 IMPLICATIONS Attention is essential for explicit memory Include variety in topics and presentation styles Frequent breaks Ask questions Minimize distractions Seat students near teacher Monitor students’ behaviors CLASSROOM EXERCISE Try to explain the following phenomenon IMPLICATIONS Learners only process limited info at a time Learners must be selective in their learning CONSTRUCTION IN STORAGE Does our memory work like a video recorder? CONSTRUCTION IN STORAGE e.g., sound waves, light rays, etc Perception: our interpretation of the environment e.g., by hearing the voice, you know that it is your mother who is speaking Less than sensation because we cannot possibly interpret all the information in our environment More than sensation because it has meanings Saccades Sensation: what we actually receive from the environment No! In the process of perception, we only retain a small portion of information We need to construct the whole picture in our mind Students write better essays using word processors if their word processing skills are well developed. If not, handwritten essays are better (Roblyer & Doering, 2010). Sensation vs. perception Students’ writing often improves more rapidly if they are initially allowed to ignore grammar, punctuation, and spelling (McCutcheon, 2000). CONSTRUCTION IN STORAGE highlight main ideas Individual differences Break down complicated information into smaller pieces Jumps in focus 4 to 5 times a second Our visual world should appear jerky and erratic we “fill in “ the missing parts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bW_zDILeevY Making assumptions We would never capture the complete picture of the environment People always make assumptions based on parts e.g., you cannot see the whole body of all your classmates in the classroom You assume that all your classmates have legs! 5 2014/10/9 CONSTRUCTION IN STORAGE Processing ambiguous stimuli CONSTRUCTION IN STORAGE Characteristics STORAGE Storage process You construct your own story STORAGE Selection Rehearsal Storage process Meaningful learning STORAGE Factors affecting long-term memory storage Categorize new information into the right “folder” Elaboration Using prior knowledge to embellish on new information and storing the embellished version Precise elaboration helps recalling “The fat man read the sign warning about the thin ice” vs. “The fat man read the sign that was two feet high” MAIGUWRSENNFLOD MEANINGFULWORDS Self-reference effect Relating new information to oneself significantly enhance learning Meaningfulness helps “Does it have big letters?” vs. “Does it mean the same as __________?” vs. “Does it describe you?” Internal organization Rote learning vs. elaborative rehearsal Words used are changed The focus was on significant events Parts of the story were distorted Tendency to both explain and describe events Visual imagery STORAGE Expectations Working memory Prior knowledge Prior knowledge helps encoding new information e.g., people who have been trapped in enclosed areas were frightened when they first saw open area, because things seem to change in sizes! e.g., geographers tend to learn and remember maps better than other people Prior misconceptions Halo vs. Horns effect More efficient processing, but may result in wrong judgments e.g., how do we see? Good persons usually do good things, bad person usually do bad things 6 2014/10/9 STORAGE Factors affecting long-term memory storage Actually doing something Feedback during enactment helps improving the actions More likely to engage in meaningful learning when they are explicitly encouraged to do so Need guidance on what is important to learn Helps students organize new materials Spacing effect: additional learning and practice sessions are typically more effective when they’re spaced out over a period of time Relate classroom subject matter to familiar concepts and situations Expository organizer and comparative organizer Concept map Automatic processing reduces memory load STORAGE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEMORY Educational implications Elaboration is helpful Visual aids enhance long-term memory Sufficient time for processing Summaries Questions, discussions, etc review, highlight important points, organize Opportunities for practice Fast learning =/= better learning DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEMORY More effective when it builds on prior knowledge Development of automaticity Repetition and review Educational implications Talking or writing about an experience Enactment Verbalization STORAGE Declarative memory Episodic memory One’s memory of personal life experiences e.g., remembering your trip to Europe, remembering one of your birthday parties, remembering how you met your significant other, etc. DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEMORY Procedural memory Remembering how to do things e.g., how to ride a bicycle, how to carry out long division Semantic memory One’s general knowledge of the world independent of personal experiences e.g., knowing about the number of continents in the world, number of alphabets in English, 8 x 7 = ? 7 2014/10/9 DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEMORY Explicit memory ORGANIZATION OF MEMORY Knowledge that we can easily recall and explain e.g., recalling the multiplication table Further in the hierarchy, longer time to recall Implicit memory Knowledge that we can’t consciously recall or explain e.g., telling how to ride a bicycle, producing grammatically correct sentences Recognition tests ORGANIZATION OF MEMORY Hierarchy CONCEPTS Memory as a network What is a concept A mental grouping of objects or events that are similar in some way Concrete concepts: chicken, swim, sky Abstract concepts: psychology, justice, memory Concrete concepts are easier to learn E: What is an uncle? C: An uncle is that he brings you presents at Christmas. E: What else? C: An uncle is that he lets you come over to his house. E: Could I be your uncle? C: No… because I don’t know you E: If I got to know you and brought you presents, could I be your uncle? C: Yes. CONCEPTS Positive instance Negative instance A non-example of the concept e.g., Flowers are not animals Under-generalization A particular example of a concept e.g., Birds are animals Unable to recognize all positive instances Over-generalization Unable to reject all negative instance Trees Flowers CONCEPTS Animals What do people learn about concepts Defining features Correlational features Irrelevant feature Examples: concept of a dog Fish Birds Insects Mammals Vegetables Water Characteristics that must be present in all positive instances Frequently found in positive instances but aren’t essential Four legs Hairy Wearing a collar Bark at strangers Sleep on the floor 8 2014/10/9 CONCEPTS What do people learn about concepts A typical example of the concept Examplers Numerous examples of a concept e.g., fruit = apple, banana, orange, water melon…… CONCEPTS How to facilitate concept learning How do people learn concepts Prototype CONCEPTS Statistical learning Consistently forming hypotheses and test them Definition SCHEMA AND SCRIPT Schema: Defining features are salient More salient than correlational and irrelevant features Highlighting defining features is important Definitions facilitate concept learning Numerous and varied positive instances help to illustrate a concept Positive and negative instances are more effective when presented simultaneously Scripts: Challenges of conceptual changes Existing beliefs Consistent with their everyday experiences Integrated into a cohesive whole Personal or emotional investment Supported by social environment Confirmation bias Fail to see inconsistency between new information and prior beliefs information overload Helping people to focus on their attention on things that are likely to be important Enable people to make sense of incomplete information Can be problematic when it does not match the reality CONCEPTUAL CHANGES Promoting Schema of events e.g., visiting the doctor Reduces CONCEPTUAL CHANGES A closely connected set of ideas related to a specific object or event e.g., the schema of a classroom conceptual changes Students can build up on their existing knowledge Determine the misconceptions before teaching Explicit comparisons Induce cognitive dissonance Meaningful context Supportive of conceptual changes Assessment 9 2014/10/9 RETRIEVAL Getting information out from the memory Often a conscious process Long-term memory capacity is unlimited, so complete searching is impossible A process of spreading activation, with activation flowing through connections within the network of stored information Organization helps retrieval process Black suit work tired sleep ….. Encoding Similar to searching something with a torch at night RETRIEVAL RETRIEVAL specificity Retrieval is easier when learners engage in thought processes similar to those they previously used when storing info Anxiety affects retrieval RETRIEVAL – SERIAL POSITION CURVE Serial position effect Better recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end of the list (recency effect) than for items in the middle Reason: Primacy effect: rehearsal better recall Recency effect: still active in STM Items in the middle: not enough time for rehearsal and suffer from interference RETRIEVAL RETRIEVAL Retrieval cues Identical to the information one is trying to retrieve Multiple choices items are providing identity cues Association cues Frame Other retrieval cues – peg-word method Hints of where to find information Identity cues Related to the stimuli being searched Direct you to the relevant parts of your long-term memory Organizational structure Recalling by categories Contextual cues Testing in a similar context as you have learned the materials helps retrieval 10 2014/10/9 RETRIEVAL RETRIEVAL Other retrieval cues – first-letter method Construction Flashbulb memories Mammals Amphibian Memories of experiencing or hearing about significant emotion-laden events Often quite vivid, detailed ones with a seemingly snapshot quality to them The vividness does not imply accuracy! Reptiles FARM B Birds RETRIEVAL Construction FORGETTING in retrieval The way the question is asked already altered the responses Experiment: watch the same car crashing movie and then estimate the speed of the cars “About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?” “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” 31.8 vs. 34.0 vs. 40.8 Misinformation effect Eyewitness testimony is not always accurate s Fish in retrieval You retrieve the gist and then re-construct the rest People’s retrieval changes from time to time Reasons More irrelevant information, takes longer to recall Retrieval-induced forgetting Inhibit the retrieval of wrong information Repression Leading questions: “how did the protesters hit the police?” Verbatim information is more likely to decay Decay is hard when the information is of personal relevance Interference and inhibition for forgetting Decay: information gradually fade away Tend not to remember something painful or emotionally distressing FORGETTING RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING Failure Educational to retrieve Fail to find out the piece of information in a particular context However, with appropriate retrieval cues, the information can be eventually identified Construction error Failure to store or consolidate Infantile amnesia Remembering nothing before age 3 Memory may work in implicit forms Lack of language skills to rehearse? implications Internal organization helps Earlier retrieval influences later ones Store and retrieve in similar contexts External retrieval cues help Questions help Keep attention Elicit feedback Understand misconceptions Construct meanings Infants can distinguish the songs they have heard in mother’s tummy! 11 2014/10/9 RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING Educational Educational implications Bloom’s taxonomies Cognitive processes: Remember, understand, apply, analyses, evaluate, create Types of knowledge: Factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive Retrieval takes time Classroom assessments affect both storage and retrieval Assessment format affect how to encode information, encourage review, feedback CLASSROOM EXERCISE implications Taxonomies of objectives helpful as making students to think about and apply what they have learned In a group of 3-4 people, choose a learning task in any subject (primary or secondary level) you prefer (e.g., carrying out an experiment). Analyze and identify all the memory systems / processes involved. You will be asked to present your analysis at the end of the discussion. RECAP EXERCISES Write down 4-5 key concepts covered in this topic (with some elaborations) and share with the friend next to you! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. REFERENCES Eggen, P. D. & Kauchak, D. P. (2014). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ormrod, J. E. (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. 12
