Download 2. …………………... are found in plant cell.

PRACTICAL WORK №1 : INTRODUCTION.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY
With the naked eye we can’t distinguish objects smaller than 100 µ (0.1
mm) in size. In laboratories, special tools are used magnify such very small
objects. Those tools are microscope allow observation of very small objects.
The first microscope was invented by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, in the early
1600s. Robert Hooke had developed the ancestor of today’s microscopes by
1665. Today, many different types of microscope, such as the phase contrast
microscope, fluorescence microscope, and electron microscope, are used to
better identify objects. However, the most commonly used microscopes are
compound microscope.
Microscope – is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for
the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument
is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a
microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, optical microscope "light microscope"
electron microscope scanning probe microscope
Care of the microscope:
1. Place it on a smooth surface, away from the edge
2. If the microscope has lamp, keep its wire out of the way
3. The most expensive part of a microscope are the lenses. They must be
clean. Only lens paper can be used to clean them, as needed.
4. Use coverslips when studying temporary slides made with water
5. Do not smear the objectives. Be careful when using the oil immersion
objective
Using the microscope
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Hold the microscope with both hands set it on a place carefully
Switch on the lamp, or turn the mirror towards the light source
Rotate the low power objective into place
some materials are best viewed in dim light, others in bright light. The light
intensity can be regulated by using the diaphragm
put the material to be examined on the stage under the lenses
look through the eye piece
by using the coarse adjustment, try to focus the image
use more powerful lenses if needed
PRACTICE:
INSTRUMENT USED IN THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY
Terminology
Microscope
Ocular
Magnification
Stage clip
Objective
Fine adjustment knob
Diaphragm
Tube
1. True or False. Change the false sentences and make them true
1. When you look at an object with the microscope under the 40X eyepiece and
40X objective, the total magnification is 4000X.
2. The first microscope was invented by Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3. The most expensive part of microscope are the base
4. Use covers lips when studying temporary slides made with water
1. Fill in the blanks whish is given below
Microscope – is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for
the…………………. The science of investigating small objects using such an
instrument is called…………………. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless
aided by ………………………..
There are many types of microscopes ………………….., "light microscope"
electron microscope scanning probe microscope.
naked eye
microscopy
a microscope
optical microscope
2. Review Questions
1. Briefly explain how to use the light microscope.
2. What is the function of the coarse adjustment knob on the microscope?
3. Who invented the first microscope?
4. Why are microscopes used in the laboratory?
3. Write the compound microscope .
PRACTICAL WORK №2 : CELL STRUCTURE.
You and all the other organisms are made p of cells. Cells are the building blocks
of organisms. Every adult human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
Cells are divided into two types
Cell
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cells: pro- means before; karyo-means nucleus. Prokaryotic cells
do not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles such as vacuoles,
mitochondria, lysosomes. Bacteria are prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cell: eu-means true; karyo-means nucleus. This cell type has a true
nucleus. All organisms expect bacteria have eukaryotic cells.
THE STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
Eukaryotic cells are much more complex than prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells have 3 main parts
They are:
1) cell membrane
2) cytoplasm
3) the nucleus
Cell membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, encloses the cell. It is made up of lipid,
protein and small amount of carbohydrate. The function of the cell membrane
are;
1. protection of the cytoplasm and its organelles
2. Exchange of material into or out of the cell.
3. provides the cell with shape
4. Links cells to each other and provides communication between cells.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the second main part of the cell. The cytoplasm is located
between the cell membrane and the nucleus. It is jelly-like (lie egg white) in
structure. It contains organic and inorganic materials.
Cell organelles are found in the cytoplasm. Cell organelles are the microrgans
of the cell. They have special function in the cell. We can summarise their
function as follows.
1. Ribosomes produce protein. Ribosomes produce protein.
2. Mitochondria are the power hoses of the cell. They produce ATP energy.
3. Golgi bodies are the packing system of the cell. They produce special
materials such as milk.
4. Vacuols are the storage centers of the cell. They store water, minerals, and
waste.
5. Chloroplast are found in plant cells. They produce food and oxygen by
photosynthesis.
Nucleus
6. The nucleus is the control center of the cell (you could say the brain of the
cell). In the nucleus, genetic material-chromosomes, made-up of DNA and
protein – is found. The nucleus also contains the nucleolus, which produce
ribosomes.
PRACTICE:
CELL BIOLOGY
Terminology
Key terms
Cell
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Vacuole
Cilia
1. True-False. Change the false sentences and make them true
1. Prokaryotic cells have no true nucleus
2. Plant cells have no vacuole.
3. Mitochondria produce energy for the cells.
4. Ribosomes produce protein
2. Fill in the blanks
1. The ……………. Is the control center of the cell.
2. …………………... are found in plant cell.
3. The…………….is the second main part of the cell
4. In prokaryotic cells there is no ………………….
3. Find out the definitions of the words
Cell membrane
produce protein
Vacuoles
encloses the cell
Chloroplast
produce food and oxygen
Ribosome’s
storage center of the cell
1. Fill In The Blanks
1. ………………..is the smallest living unit.
2. The…………….cell has a true nucleus.
3. ………………….provides material exchange in and out of the cell.
4. ……………………is the waste basket of the cell
5. Animal has…………….type of cell.
2. Put the sentences in order
1. provides\ the\ shape\cell membrane\with
2. store\vacuoles\water\and\waste\minerals
3. You\ organisms\are\made\and\the\all\are\up\of\cells
4. prokaryotic\cells\are\bacteria
3. Fill in the blanks whish is given below
1. The cytoplasm is the second main part of the…………. 2. The cytoplasm is
located between the cell membrane and the……………. 3. It is …………..(lie egg
white) in structure. It contains ……………….and inorganic materials.
4. ……………………. are found in the cytoplasm. Cell organelles are the …………..of the
cell. 5. They have special function in the………..
Microrgans cell nucleus cell organic Cell organelles
jelly-like
1. Find the mistakes and correct them.
1. Prokaryotic cells: “pro” – means before; “karyo”-means
true._______________
2. Eukaryotic cells have 2 main part._______________________
3. The function of cell membrane - protection.___________________
4. The nucleus is the energy center.____________________
2. Choose the correct answer
1.
Which one of the following is not a cell organelle?
A) Vacuole B) Lysosome C) Ribosome D) Chromosome E) Golgi
2.
Which one of the following produces food?
A) Ribosome B) Vcuole C) Nucleus D) Lysosome E) chloroplast
3.
Which one of the following belongs to only plant cells?
A) Chloroplast B) Ribosome C) lysosome D) Peroxisome E) Golgi
4.
Which one of the following belongs to only animal cell?
A) Golgi body B) Cell wall C) Centrosome D) Ribosome E) Cytoplam
5.
Which one of the following has a prokaryotic cell?
A) Bacteria B) Animals C) Human D) Plants E) None of them
3. Write the definition of the Cells organelle:
Compare the cells of plants and animals:
Structure
Plant cell
Animal cell
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cell wall
Nucleolus
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
Fill in the blank
The ………………….is the control center of the cell (you could say the brain of the
cell). In the nucleus, genetic material-chromosomes, made-up of ………… and
protein – is found. 2. The nucleus also contains the nucleolus, which
produce…………………. 3. The ………….. is the second main part of the cell. 4. The
cytoplasm is located between the …………….. and the ……………. It is ……………….
(lie egg white) in structure. It contains …………. and …………… materials.
TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES
A cellular organization between a single cell and a complete organism is
controlled by the tissue. They are the collection of similar cells, with specific
function. A collection of tissue gives rise to an organ. A tissue is a simple, which
may be single celled type or a complex cell type.
Definition of Plant Tissue
A plant tissue can be defined as a cell or a group of cells dividing, to give rise to
large number of cell, which is collectively referred as tissues. They are structurally
and functionally similar to these cells.
Plant Tissue Systems
Plants do have a higher level of structure called plant tissue systems. A plant
tissue system can be defined as a functional unit, which connects all organs of a
plant. Like animal tissue system, plant tissue system is also grouped into various
tissues based on their functions.
Types of Plant Tissue Systems
There are three types of tissue systems.
Dermal Tissue
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They are the tissues, which covers the external part of the herbaceous
plants.
They are composed of epidermal cells, which secrete the waxy cuticle.
Waxy cuticles are responsible for protecting plants against water loss.
Dermal tissue consists of Epidermis and periderm.
Epidermis
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They are the outermost layer of the primary plant body, which covers roots,
stems, leaves, floral parts, fruits and seeds.
They are one layer thick with cuticle.
They are composed mostly of unspecialized cells- parenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
They include trichomes, stomata, buIIiform ceIIs, etc.
Periderm
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They are the outermost layer of stems and roots of woody plants such as
trees. They are also called as barks.
They replace epidermis in plants that undergo secondary growth.
They are multilayered structures.
They include cork cells, which are nonliving cells that cover the outside of
stems and roots.
The periderm protects the plant from injuries, pathogens and also from
excessive water loss.
Ground Tissue
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They synthesize the organic compounds and support the plants by storing
the produced products.
They are composed of parenchyma cells and also include collenchyma and
sclerenchyma cells.
Parenchyma
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They are the general cells of plants, which are circular in shape and have
very thin wall.
They are present in all plant cells.
They have very large vacuoles and are frequently found in all roots, stem,
leaves and in fruits
Parenchyma cells help in synthesizing and storage of synthesized food
products.
Parenchyma cells also controls plant's metabolism like photosynthesis,
respiration, protein synthesis.
They also play a vital role in wound healing and regeneration of plants.
Collenchyma
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Collenchymas are a specialized parenchyma tissue, which are found in all
green parts.
Collenchyma cells are elongated with unevenly thickened walls.
They are alive during the cell maturity.
Collenchyma cells controls the functions of young plants.
A collenchyma cell provides a support to plants by not restraining growth,
which is caused due to their absence of secondary walls and hardening
agent in their primary walls.
Sclerenchyma
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They are rigid, non-living cells.
They have thick, lignified secondary walls and lack protoplasts at maturity.
They provide strength
A sclerenchyma cell also provides a support to plants with the help of
hardening agent present in their cells.
Sclerenchyma cells are of two types:
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Sclereids: They are short, irregular in shape and have thick, lignified
secondary walls
Fibers: They are long, slender and are arranged in threads.
Vascular Tissues
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They are specialized cells with transport of water, hormone and minerals
throughout the plant.
They contain transfer cells, fibers in addition to xylem, phloem,
parenchyma, cambium and other conducting cells.
They are located in the veins of the Leaves.
Xylem
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The term “Xylem― is derived from the Greek word meaning
“Wood―.
They are dead with hollow cells, which consist of only cell wall.
They play a vital role in transporting water and dissolved nutrients from the
roots to all parts of a plant.
They transport the nutrients in the upward direction .i.e. from the root to
the stem, leaves and flower.
Xylem is also called as water-conducting cells.
Phloem
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The term “phloem― is derived from the Greek word meaning
“Bark―.
They are live cells, which lack nucleus and other organelles.
They transports dissolved organic food materials (sugars) from the leaves to
all parts of a plant.
They transport the nutrients in the downward direction .i.e. from the leaves
to the different parts of the plant.
Phloem is also called as sugar-conducting cells.
Types of Plant Tissue
Back to Top
There are two types of tissue systems.
Meristematic Tissues
Meristematic tissues are group of cells, which have the ability to divide. This
tissue consists of small, cubodial densely packed cells, which keeps on dividing to
form new cells. These tissues are capable of stretching, enlarging and
differentiate into other types of tissues as they mature. Meristematic tissues give
rise to permanent tissues.
General characteristics of Meristematic tissues
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They have very small cells with thin cell walls.
Their cells have large nuclei.
Their cells have very small vacuoles and they lack intercellular spaces.
They remain young forever and divide actively throughout the life of the
plant.
In plants, these tissues are found in the -Tips of roots, stems, nodes of
stems, buds, in between the xylem and phloem, under the epidermis of
dicotyledonous plants and also producing branch roots.
Kinds of Meristematic tissues

Apical meristems : They are found at the tip of stems and roots. During the
cell division, this meristem helps in cellular enlargement and also it
influence the shapes of the mature plants.

Lateral meristems : They are found along the sides of roots and stems .They
play a vital role in increasing the width or diameter of stems and roots.

Intercallary meristems : They are found at the bases of young leaves and
internodes. They are mainly responsible for further lengthening of stems
and leaves.
Permanent Tissues
The tissues, which are derived from the Meristematic tissues, are called as
permanent tissues. They are the tissues, which have lost their ability to divide as
they have attained their mature form.
Kinds of Permanent Tissues

Simple permanent tissue: They are the tissues, which are similar in function
and are called as simple because they are composed of similar types of
cells, which have common origin and function.

Complex permanent tissue: They are the tissues, which are composed of
two or more types of cells but contribute to a common function are called
complex tissues.
Plant Tissue Functions
Different types of plant tissue have their own respective functions.
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The plant tissue helps in providing mechanical strength to both the internal
and external organs.
They also help in rendering the elasticity and flexibility to the organs.
The tissue also helps in easy bending in various parts of a plant like- leaf,
stem and branches without causing any damages to main plant.
The tissue also helps transportation of materials thorough out the plants
and prevents water loss.
They divide to produce new growth and build the mass of the plants.
They are involved in various cellular metabolisms like photosynthesis,
regeneration, respiration, e
PRACTICAL WORK №3: VEGETATIVE ORGANS OF PLANTS
ROOT STRUCTURE
THE PLANT BODY
Plants are multicellular and photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. They can
produce their own food by photosynthesis. Most plant are herbaceous or woody.
Some, called annuals, complete their life cycle in one year, such as corn and bean.
Some others, called biennials, need two years to complete their life cycle, such as
carrot and cabbage. Perennials live many years. They have woody bodies and are
large in size, such as oak and redwood.
The bodies of flowering plants have two systems.
1. Root systems are generally the below the ground. Root system penetrate
the soil and absorb water and minerals.
2. Shoot system are generally above the ground. The shoot system consist of
stem, leaves and flower.
BODY ORGANS
Plants have four main organs, they are:
1. ROOT
2. STEM
3. LEAF
4. FLOWER
Plant body organs
ROOT STRUCTURE
Characteristics of Root
1.The root develops from the radicle of the embryo present in the seed. It grows
downwards into the soil away from light.
2.It is non-green and cannot synthesise organic food.
3.It does not bear leaves and buds. Nodes and internodes are also absent.
4.The apex of the root is protected by a thimblelike structure, the root cap. Behind
it numerous unicellular root hairs are present.
5.It bears lateral rootlets which are endongenous in origin.
6.Theroot is negatively phototropicbut positively geotropic
Root structure
It absorbs water and minerals from the soil and anchors the plant in the
ground. It also stores food in some plants, such as carrot. There are two basic
types of root: tap root and fibrous root.
In the typical root structure, the tip of the root is rounded and covered with
a protective struсture called the root cap. Just beneath the root cap are dividing
cells which provide root growth.
The root hairs, tiny projections growing out from the root, absorb water and
minerals. The vascular organs, xylem and phloem, transport water, minerals and
food.
Regions of the Root
The following four regions may be distinguished in a root from apex upwards :
1. Root cap-Each root is covered at the apex by a cap-like structure. Thi? is
known as root-cap. It protects the growing apex in the soil. Root-cap is absent in
aquatic plants.
1) Meristcmatic zone—This is the growing apex of the root lying a little beyond
the root cap. The cells of this zone divide actively and add new cells to the root
and root cap.
2) Zone of elongation-This lies above the meristematic zone. The cellsof this zone
undergo rapid elongation and differentiate into various tissues.
3) Zone of differentiation-It lies above the region of elongation. In this zone the
differentiated cells mature and form the epidermis, cortex and vascular bundles.
This region bears a number of root hairs. The root hairs absorb water and mineral
salts. Above the root hair region, the main axis produces lateral roots.
Functions of Roots
Roots perform two kinds of functions-primary and secondary. The primary
functions are the concern of all the roots. In some plants roots are modified to
perform specialised secondary functions.
PRACTICAL WORK №4: STEM STRUCTURE
The stem connect the root and leaves. It transport materials between the
leaves and root. Stems can be herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous steams are soft
and photosynthetic. Bean, wheat and tomato have herbaceous stems. Woody
stems are hard and not photosynthetic. Pine, oak and redwood have woody
stems. Both herbaceous and woody stems have xylem and phloem vessels. They
form the transport system of the plant. Xylem transports water and minerals
from the root to the other parts of the plant, and phloem transports
photosynthetic products between the leaves and root.
Characteristics of Stems
1. The stem forms the ascending portion of the main axis of the plant and is
direct prolongation of the plumule.
2. It grows away from soil towards light. It is, therefore, negatively geotropic
and positively phototropic.
3. It has well-marked nodes and internodes. Branches and leaves arise at the
nodes.
4. The young stem is green in colour and is thus photosynthetic.
5. The growing apex of stem bears a terminal bud.
6. It often bears various types of multicellular hairs.
7. Lateral branches are exogenous in origin.
Woody stems also have other supportive structures. In woody stems, the outer
layer, called bark, helps to protect the inner layers. The phloem is located
beneath the bark. Inside the phloem is layer called the cambium whose cells
divide to form new xylem and phloem vessels. Inside the cambium, the xylem
vessel is found. At the core of the stem, the heart wood is found. When we look
at the stump of a tree, you see many concentric circles. These are called annual
rings, because each pair of them represents one year of plan growth.
Stem Structure
Differences between stem and root
Stem
Root
a) It arises from plumule
a) It arises from the radicle
b) It bears leaves, flowers and
fruits
b) It does not bear leaves,
flowers and fruits
c) It is usually green
c) Except in some water
plants, it is not green.
d) It has nodes and internodes
e) The growing tip is covered
over by a terminal bud
f) It may bear multicellular hairs.
g) Stem is positively phototropic
but negatively geotropic
d) Absent
e) Root apex is protected by
root cap.
f) It bears only unicellular
hairs
g)
Root
is
phototropic
negatively
but
positively geotropic
PRACTICAL WORK №5: LEAF STRUCTURE
Leaves are the main photosynthetic part of plants. They are the most
variable plant organs. Leaves vary in size and shape, such as spiny leaves in pine
and broad leaves in tropical plants.
Parts of leaf
A typical leaf has three main parts:
1. Leaf base
2. Petiole
3. Lamina
The part of the leaf attached to the stem or branch is known as leaf base.
Petiole connects the lamina with the stem or branch. Petiole helps in
exposing the leaf-blade to sunlight.
Lamina- this is the most important, green and flattened part of the leaf
which is mainly concerned with the manufacture of food.
Venation
The arrangement of veins in the leaf lamina is called venation. Venation is of
two types – reticulate and parallel.
Simple and compound leaves
Simple leaf – a leaf is said to be simple in which the leaf blade or lamina is
entire or incised to various extents. The leaves in banyan, mango, peepal etc., are
simple leaves.
Compound leaf – here the lamina is divided into a numder of leaf-like lodes
called the leaflets. There are two types of compound leaves:
1. Pinnate compound leaves
2. Palmate compound leaves
In a pinnate compound leaf, the leaflets are borne on a common axis known as
the rachis.
Palmate – when all the leaflets are attached at a common point at the tip of the
petiole.
Simple leaf
Compound leaf
Simple leaf has auxiliary bud in An auxiliary bud is present in the axils
of a compound leaf but it is missing in
its axis
the leaflets if a compound leaf.
The simple leaf may have incision
but these never penetrate The compound leaves are divided into
deeply enough to divide it into distinct parts or leaflets
leaflets
The main vein is called rachis.
The main vein is called mid-rib
Leaf structure
In the cross section of leaf under the microscope, you can see the outermost
layer is a waxy, waterproof cuticle layer. Under the cuticle the layer is the
epidermis, which is non-photosynthetic. Next comes the layer called mesophyll,
which has many chloroplasts. The mesophyll layer has vascular tissue composed
of xylem and phloem. The lower epidermis has many tiny openings which provide
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. During photosynthesis, water is absorbed
from the soil by root hairs and transported by xylem to the leaves. Carbon dioxide
is taken in through the stoma. Chloroplast produce food and oxygen from the
water and carbon dioxide by using solar energy.
Leaf structure
PRACTICAL WORK №5: REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FLOWER
Flower are specialized shoots which have reproductive organs. They have
different shapes and colors. A flower is composed of petals, which have different
colors in order to attract animal pollinators, and sepals, which are generally
green, to protect the stamen and carpel.
Stamens are the male reproductive organs which produce pollen grains. They
consist of two main part: anther and filament.
The pistil has 3 main parts:
1.
Stigma
2.
Style
3.
Ovary
The receptacle, to which all floral parts are attached, also produces nectar, a
sugary fluid that provides an energy source for insects.
The flower and its parts are concerned with sexual reproduction in angiosperms.
Morphologically, flower is a modified shoot meant for the reproduction of the
plant. Typically, it is a condensed branch in which internodes have become
condensed, bringing the nodes very close to one another, and the leaves are
modified to form floral whorls that directly or indirectly participate in the process
of reproduction.
Flowers differ greatly in size, shape, colour and arrangement of their parts yet
most of them have a common structural plan.
Parts of a Flower
The flower is commonly borne on a short or long stalk called the pedicel. It
has an upper swollen region known as receptacle or thalamus. On this are borne
the floral whorls of the flower. A typical flower consists of the following four
whorls arranged in a definite order, one above the other :
Calyx-It is the outermost whorl of the flower. It iscomposed of leaf-like green
sepals. Sepalsenclose the bud and protect the delicate parts within.
Corolla-It is the second whorl of the flower, and consists of a number of
petals. In majority of the flowers, petals are brightly coloured and scented and
are of various shapes. They attract insects for pollination.
Androecium-This is the third whorl of flower and is the male reproductive
organ consisting of stamens. Each stamen is made of three parts-filament, anther
and connective.
The filament is a part of stamen that supports anther at its tip. The anther is
four-chambered and bears granular mass of pollen grains. The connective joins
the anther lobes.
Gynoecium-This is the last and the fourth whorl of flower and is the female
reproductive organ of the flower. It is known as pistil. It occupies the central
position on the receptacle and is composed ovary, style and stigma and the
component parts called carpels. Ovary encloses egg-like-bodies, the ovules. The
stigma is sticky receives pollens. Ovules form the seeds after fertilization and
ovary becomes the fruit.
The sepals and petals are not directly involved in the reproduction. Thus,
they are regarded as the accessory whorls, whereas androecium and gynoecium
called essential or reproductive whorls.
In some plants, calyx and corolla are not differentiated from one another. In
such a case both whorls are called perianth, and each part of the perianth is called
tepal.
Complete and Incomplete Flowers
In most flowers all the four whorls are found. Such flowers are called
complete e.g., Cotton, China rose, of the four whorls any one whorl is absent it is
incomplete flower e.g.. Cucurbits.
PRACTICE
LEAF, STEM, ROOT, FLOWER
Terminology
Root
Spongy mesophyll
Pinnate
Root cap
Compound leaf
Sepals
Root hair
Simple leaf
Epidermis
Meristematic cell
Venation
Petiole
Androecium
Gynoecium
Petals
Lamina
Palmate
Complete
1. True or false. Change the false sentences and make them true
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Shoot system is usually above the ground
Stems can be woody or herbaceous.
Xylem transports photosynthetic products between the leaves and root.
Epidermis are non-photosynthetic.
The pistil has 2 main parts
2. Find out the definitions of the words
Root
Connect the root and leaves.
Leaves
It absorbs water and mineral from the soil and anchors
the plant in the ground.
Stem
The main photosynthetic part of plant.
Root cap
Leaf structure provides gas exchanges.
Root hair
Tinyprojectionsgrowing out from the root.
Stoma
Tip of the rootis rounded and covered with a protective
structure.
Flower
have reproductive organs.
3. Fill in the blanks
1. Annual plants complete their life cycle in___________ years.
2. Plants have___________main organs. They are ____________________.
3. __________________are soft and photosynthetiс .
4. _______. ___________ have woody stems.
5. The ___________________, to which all floral parts are attached, also
produces nectar, a sugary fluid that provides an energy source for
_____________.
6. ________________ - It is the outermost whorl of the flower.
1. Answer: Yes or No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Root system are generally the below the ground.
Biennials live many years.
Woody stems are hard and not-photosynthetic
Under the cuticle the layer is the mesophyll.
Stamens are the male reproductive organs which produce pollen grains
Ovary encloses egg-like-bodies, the ovules
2.Find the mistakes and correct them.
1. Stem can be annual or herbaceous. ________________
2. Xylem transports photosynthetic products between the leaves and
root._____________
3. Inside the phloem is a layer called the cuticle._______________
4. Mesophyll has many chloroplasts.
5. Each stamen is made of three parts-__________,_____________
6. _______________ are specialized shoots which have reproductive organs.
7. _______________It is the second whorl of the flower, and consists of a
number of ______________.
3. Fill in the blanks which is given below
The …………… connect the root and leaves. 2. Carbon dioxide is taken in
through the ……………… .3. In woody stems, the outer layer, called ………, helps to
protect the inner layers. 4…………… transport water and minerals from the root to
the other parts of plant. 5. Next comes the layer called mesophyll, which has
many …………………..6. Under the cuticle the layer is the ………………….. 7.
………………….. are hard and not photosynthetic. 8. The outermost layer is a
waxy,waterproof………….layer. 9……………….. transport photosynthetic products
between the leaves and root. 10……………………-This is the last and the fourth
whorl of flower and is the female reproductive organ of the flower.
11……………………. - It is the outermost whorl of the flower
Stem, woody stem, xylem, phloem, bark, cuticle, stoma, chloroplasts,
epidermis, Gynoecium , calyx
1. Multiple-Choice
1.Which one of the following is not a part of plant
a) stigma b)stem c) flagella d) cilia
2. Which one of the following transport water and minerals in the plant?
a) cambium b) xylem c) phloem d) artery
3. Which plant have woody stem?
a) corn b) wheat c) tomato d) pine
4. Which ha many chloroplasts?
a) epidermis b) cuticle c) Chloroplasts d) bark
5. Which one following leaf structure provides gas exchanges?
a) cuticle b) mesophyll layer c) stoma d) xylem
6. The sticky female structure that receives male pollen is the
a) filament b) anther c) stigma d) style e) stamen
Order sentence
1. Phloem\ beneath\ the\ bark\ the\ is\ located
2. transports\ stem\the\leaves\materials\root\and\it\between
3. not\ hard\are\woody\stem\and\photosynthetic
4. epidermis\cuticle\under\the\layer\the\is\the
5. stoma\the\in\through\taken\is\carbon\dioxide
6. male\ Stamens\ are\ organs\ the\ reproductive\ produce\ which\ grains\
pollen.
7. The\ to \floral \which \all \attached\ receptacle,\ parts\ are.
1. Write structure flower
1. Make up several sentence using this words.
Root, system, ground, root cap, root hairs,
Stem, woody, herbaceous, xylem, phloem.
Leaf, stoma, chloroplast, mesophyll
2. Describe the picture
2. Fill the table
Word
Woody
Meaning
Examples
Herbaceous
Biennials
Chloroplasts
PRACTICAL WORK №6: Ecological Classification of Plants
Hydrophytes
Mesophytes
Xerophytes
Halophytes
Epiphytes
Like a human being or an animal, a plant must adapt to its environment in order to survive. For
their survival, plants compete with other plants for light, water, air and soil. The ability of plants
to adjust with the environment is called adaptation. According to ecological classification, plants
are categorized as follows.
Hydrophytes
Hydrophytes are those plants which live in water and adjust with their surroundings. They either
remain fully dipped in the water like Hydrilla, Valisineria, etc. or most of their body parts remain
under the water like trapa, lotus, etc. water lilies, sedges, crow foots are other important water
plants. These hydrophytes travel long distances in the water, as the wind blows.
Mesophytes
The land plants which grow under normal conditions are called mesophytes. These plants grow
on such places where the elimate is neither too dry nor too moist. The atmospheric temperature
and relative humidity are also normal. Wheat, pea, tomato, mango, guava, etc. are examples of
mesophytes. Their roots are tightly embedded in the soil. The leaves are large and broad and the
stem is erect.
Xerophytes
These plants grow in deserts or in dry areas. They can survive even under long dry conditions.
To fulil the water requirement, their roots become very long and the stems and leaves become
thick and fleshy. The leaves of these plants get modified into spines to control the loss of water
by transpiration. Various kinds of cacti, aloes, stone crops etc. belong to this category.
Halophytes
These plants grow in such places where the amount of mineral salts in the water is very high.
The stem and leaves of these plants become thick and fleshy. Such plants sometimes bear
respiratory roots which come out of the soil and perform breathing function. Rhizophora and
Avicenna are example of such plants.
Epiphytes
These plants grow on other plants, on poles or on wires or they develop over the roofs of
buildings. Epiphytes are mostly chlorophyllus and they prepare their own food. These plants get
carbon dioxide and water from moist air. Their roots get water and nutrients form the dust
deposited around them. Moss, fem, and orchid are example of these plants. Lentils, the creepers
of a pumpkin plants, etc. come in this category.
Plant Life-Form
The life-form of the mature plant is classified according to the system of Raunkiaer (1934), as
modified by Govaerts et al. (2000). Broadly speaking, the approach classifies plants according to the
positions of their perennating buds (hence the level of protection that buds are given), during seasons
that are unfavourable for growth. A summary of the classification is provided below, and
abbreviations used in SID are given in parentheses.

Phanerophytes (phan.) have stems that are woody and persistent, and buds that are normally
exposed 3 m or more above ground level. This category includes trees and large shrubs

Nanophanerophytes (nanophan.) also have woody, persistent stems, but are lower in stature
with buds typically located between 0.5 m and 3 m above ground level. This category includes
smaller shrubs.

Herbaceous phanerophytes (herb. phan.) have herbaceous stems that persist for several years
and include tropical species such as bananas and plantains.

Chamaephytes (cham.) can have stems that are herbaceous or woody and persistent, and have
buds that are located above soil level, but never by more than 50 cm. This group includes
dwarf shrubs and some perennial herbs.

Hemicryptophytes (hemicr.) have herbaceous stems that often die-back during unfavourable
seasons, and surviving buds placed on (or just below) soil level. This group includes many
biennial and perennial herbs, including those in which buds grow from a basal rosette.

Geophytes (not abbreviated) have stems that die back during unfavourable seasons, with the
plant surviving as a bulb, rhizome, tuber or root bud.

Therophytes (ther.) complete their entire life-cycle during the favourable season, and survive
the unfavourable season as a seed. This group includes all annual herbs.

Epiphytes (epi.) grow on other plants (their growing buds occur on another plant).

Helophytes (hel.) are plants in which surviving buds are buried in water-saturated soil, or
below water-level, but that have flowers and leaves that are fully emergent during the growing
season. The group includes many marsh and emergent aquatic herbs.

Hydrophytes (hydro.) are fully aquatic herbs in which surviving buds are submerged, or buried
in soil beneath water. Their stems and vegetative shoots grow entirely underwater and leaves
can be submerged or floating, but only the flower-bearing parts may be emergent.
The above categories may be preceded by the following terms:

cl. denotes a climbing plant.

succ. denotes a plant having succulent stems.

par. denotes a plant that is parasitic.
6. List of recommended literature
6.1 Basic literature
6.1.1. Plant biology
AlisonM, Smith, GeorgeCopland. Liam Dolan
6.1.2. Plant Biology
Andrew Lack David Evans
6.1.3.Ecology
Aulay Mackenzie
7.2 Additional literature
7.2.1 Майер Н.Г. Английский язык для биологов: учебно – методическое пособие. ГорноАлтайск: РИО ГАГУ, 2010г
7.2.2. А.С. Бугрова., Е.Н.Вихрова. Английский язык для биологических специальностей.
Изд: Высшее профессиональное образование, 2008г
7.2.3Англо – русский биологический
словарь., Изд: Высшее профессиональное
образование, 2005г