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World History and Geography Study List AGE OF EXPLORATION Hint: Review Middle Ages List Numbers 5-10 1. Jeng Ho - He was a Ming court official. He led seven Chinese naval expeditions to Malaysia, Sri Lanka, India, and even as far as Africa on some voyages. His overseas explorations and trade were the high point of Ming culture. Page 374 2. “The Age of Exploration” - It was Europe’s discovery of new lands and new trade routes which led to economic and cultural changes that revolutionized lives of people around the world. It lasted from about 1400 into the 1700s. 3. Expand Trade Routes and Spread Christianity - They were the reasons why Columbus and other Europeans sailed the uncharted oceans after 1400. One was the high value Europeans placed on goods from India and Asia which caused people to risk long voyages into unknown waters. The Great Commission by Christ to the Church was the other reason. 4. Advancements in Naval Technology - They were the developments needed to make exploration by ship possible. They were square and triangular sails for sailing with and against the wind, the compass and astrolabe for figuring location and direction, shipbuilding improvements, etc. 5. Prince Henry the Navigator - He was the member of the royal family of Portugal. In the early 1400s he set up a naval school in Portugal. He was responsible for fostering the development of naval advances such as the astrolabe, compass and more advanced ships able to make long sea voyages. However, he never went sailing himself. 6. Successes of Portuguese Exploration - They were yearly voyages of exploration along the coast of Africa starting in 1415 as initiated by Prince Henry the Navigator. They were the Portuguese discovery and claim of the Azores, the Madeira Islands, the Cape Verde Islands and claim of land down the African coast to the Gold Coast, by 1460 when Prince Henry died. In 1488 Dias reached the tip of South Africa and in 1498 da Gama reached India. 7. Bartolomeu Dias - He sailed for Portugal in 1487-88 down the coast of Africa. He successfully rounded the cape at the southern tip and proved that Africa could be sailed around. He named this southern tip of Africa “Cape of Storms” and King John II renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.” 8. Vasco da Gama - He sailed in exploration for Portugal. He followed Dias route south along the coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. He continued across the Indian Ocean and reached India in 1490. He was responsible for breaking the Muslim and Italian monopoly on the Indian spice trade. He returned to Portugal with a cargo of cinnamon and pepper after avoiding being killed by the Muslims. He became a hero. 9. Christopher Columbus - He was an Italian sailor who was an expert in navigation. In 1492 he achieved his dream of sailing west toward the Far East. He claimed a number of Caribbean Islands for Spain. He made a total of four voyages to the new lands and explored through the islands all the way to the coasts of South America and Central America. His reports of his findings started the Geographic Revolution 10. Amerigo Vespucci - He was an Italian navigator and one of the first people to deduce that Columbus’ newly discovered lands were not part of Asia. He claimed to have made a number of voyages to the New World. The accuracy of this claim is disputed and he may never even have left Europe. A German who used his first name to label the new continent published his accounts in 1507 11. Line of Demarcation - It was the final solution to the dispute between Spain and Portugal over claims of newly discovered land. Portugal disagreed with the Pope’s division and they negotiated a boundary with Spain in the Treaty of Tordesillas, in 1494. All the lands 900 miles west of an imaginary north-south line were to go to Spain and all those east to Portugal. Explorers: Christopher Columbus or Film: Ten Who Dared: Columbus and Columbus handout 12. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand - They are the joint monarchs of Spain. After completing the Reconquista in 1492 they financed the westward explorations of Columbus. The story that She sold her jewels to finance Columbus is a myth. 13. Tainos - They were the Indians who greeted Columbus in 1492. They shared the food tapioca with the Spanish and a new idea in sleep bedding, hammocks. The Spanish in turn enslaved some of them and passed diseases to them so that they died by the thousands. They may have numbered one million in 1492 and by 1515 they numbered 30,000. 14. Hispaniola - It is the island Columbus ran aground on in the Santa Maria. He founded the first New World settlement here at Navidad on his first voyage. On his second voyage, Columbus founded the settlement of Isabella on the north coast of this island. On his third voyage Columbus was put in chains on this island because of his mismanagement of the colony. Today this island has two countries on it - Haiti and Dominican Republic. 15. Carib Indians - They were the hostile Indians who greeted Columbus on his second voyage to the Caribbean. They may have wanted to have Columbus and his crew over for dinner. They were so violent in their invitation that they forced Columbus to have his ship ram their canoes to show his refusal to dine. It is just as well that he declined the invitation since they were cannibals. 16. Caravel - It was a wide ship that could carry heavy cargo and sail in shallow waters. It was developed by Prince Henry the Navigator for use in long-range exploration. Columbus used this type of ship on his first voyage. Page 376 17. Pedro Cabral - He was the Portuguese navigator in 1500 who was appointed to follow da Gama’s route and establish trade with the East Indies. He took a westward course around Africa and accidentally discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. He continued on, losing 4 of 13 ships off the Cape of Good Hope in a storm. He reached Calicut, India and established a trading post there. He returned safely. 18. Vasco de Balboa - He began the first successful settlement on the American mainland in Panama in 1510. In 1513, he crossed through Panama’s deadly swamps, jungle and mountain range to the other side of the Isthmus. He was the first European to discover what he called the South Sea which was in fact the Pacific Ocean. In 1519 he was arrested on false treason charges and killed by Francisco Pizzaro. 19. Francisco Pizarro - He was the Spanish conquistador who set out with 160 men to conquer the largest of the American Indian Empires. He arrived in the Peru part of South America in 1530 and found a weakened empire which had just finished a civil war. Using horses, Spanish arms, courage, luck, etc. he captured the Inca and killed him after getting millions in ransom. He then, with the help of European disease, managed to conquer and rule the entire Andean Mountains Empire. 20. Juan Ponce de Leon - He sailed on Columbus’ second voyage and later became governor of Puerto Rico and founded San Juan in 1511. In 1513 he started his search for Bimini, an island said to have the Fountain of Youth. He discovered Florida and searched both sides. He searched through the Bahama islands but never found the mythical fountain. In 1521, he attempted to settle Florida but was wounded and driven off by the Indians. He died after returning to Cuba. His exploration was the basis of Spain’s claim to Florida. 21. Hernando de Soto - He received permission to conquer Florida in 1537. He landed in Florida in 1539 and explored for 3 years going northward in a fruitless search for gold. He had constant conflicts with the Indians and in 1541 discovered and crossed the Mississippi river. He explored all the way to Oklahoma before turning back. He died on the banks of the Mississippi River and his body was sunk in the river to keep Indians from desecrating it. Almost all his companions died before reaching civilization. 22. Francisco de Coronado - He was sent to find the legendary seven cities of gold and explored what is now the southwest United States. He discovered the Grand Canyon, and then cut cross-country to the Pueblos. Next he explored up the Rio Grand Valley and onto the Great Plains all the way to eastern Kansas. He failed to find riches, but did bring back valuable geographic information. 23. Ferdinand Magellan - He fulfilled Columbus’ dream of finding an all water route around the world. Starting in 1519 he sailed west to southern South America with five ships. The stormy weather at the bottom of the world made finding the route through the maze of islands in the strait difficult. He sailed for three lean months across the Pacific without seeing land until he reached the Philippines. There he was killed in a local tribal war. His men continued on. Eighteen men and only one ship, loaded with a cargo of spices, returned to Spain after three years of voyaging all the way around the world. 24. Pacific Ocean - It is the largest ocean in the world. It’s name means peaceful because when Magellan sailed across it he encountered no storms. Magellan’s crossing this ocean was Europe’s first indication of it’s real size. The first European to see this ocean was Vasco de Balboa, who gazed upon it in 1513. 25. Northwest Passage - It is the supposed sea route around North America searched for by English and French explorers. This route was to be a short cut to China. The exploration for this route eventually led to French and English land claims in North America. 26. John Cabot - He was an Italian navigator who sailed for England in 1497 in the first voyage to find the Northwest Passage. He found Cape Breton Island on his first voyage and on his second explored Greenland’s east and west coasts, reached Baffin Land and Newfoundland. He continued south to the 38th parallel before he died. He claimed these lands for England. 27. Jacques Cartier - He sailed for France 35 years after Cabot did for England searching for the Northwest Passage. On his three voyages he found and sailed up the Saint Lawrence River as far as present day Montreal and attempted to colonize Canada in 1541-1542. His voyage and claims conflicted with Cabot’s and set the stage for future wars between France and England over North America. 28. Sir Francis Drake - He was a privateer who on three expeditions plundered the Spanish West Indies - both towns and shipping in the 1570s. He hiked across the Isthmus of Panama and became the first English commander to see the Pacific. Since the Atlantic coast search for the Northwest Passage had failed, he was sent by Queen Elizabeth in 1577 to search America’s west coast. He explored the Strait of Magellan and then worked his way north plundering the Spanish along the coast of Chile and Peru. He named California New Albion and claimed it, but failed to find the Northwest Passage back to the Atlantic. He continued on around the world becoming the first Englishman to do so, in 1580. He later helped led the successful fight against the Spanish Armada and started Britain on the road to its domination of the seas. Page 456 29. Hispaniola - It is the island Columbus ran aground on in the Santa Maria. He founded the first New World settlement here at Navidad on his first voyage. On his second voyage, Columbus founded the settlement of Isabella on the north coast of this island. On his third voyage Columbus was put in chains on this island because of his mismanagement of the colony. Its settlement started the conquest of the Americas by Europeans and laid the basis for the countries of Latin America. Today this Island has two countries on it - Haiti and Dominican Republic. 30. Hernando Cortes - He was the leader of the Spanish expedition that landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. He founded Veracruz and destroyed his fleet before marching inland. He defeated them, and then made an alliance with tribes that hated the Aztecs. He entered Mexico City at Aztec invitation and took Montezuma hostage. After Montezuma’s death, he was forced out of the city by the Aztec revolt, after severe fighting in 1520. He returned, assaulted Mexico City in 1521, captured it and conquered the Aztecs. 31. Conquistadors - They were the Spanish conquerors that came to the New World in search of adventure and gold. 32. Malinche - She was a young Aztec woman who was one of 20 slaves given to Cortes by the Maya. She knew both Maya and the Aztec language and she acted as both a diplomat and informant for Cortes. She even saved Cortes’s life when she discovered an Indian plot to kill him. 33. Vera Cruz - It was a coastal city with a good harbor founded by Cortes. It is located up the coast from the Yucatan peninsula. 34. Montezuma - He was “The Chief of Men.” As head of the Aztec government he was looked upon as nearly a god. He found very unusual omens marking the arrival of the Spanish and at first took them to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl. He ended up being imprisoned by the Spanish and killed by a thrown rock during a battle between his people and the Spanish. 35. Tenochtitlan - It was the capital of the Aztec Empire. This City was located on an island in Lake Texcoco where the Aztecs had been given a sign to settle. Land had been built up by draining the lake and fill of dirt/vegetation mixture was added in the shallow areas to cover about 5 square miles. It had causeways to the mainland and was easy to defend. 36. Mexico City - It was the new name given to the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, after the Spanish conquered it. 37. Francisco Pizarro - He was the Spanish conquistador who set out with 160 men to conquer the largest of the American Indian Empires. He arrived in the Peru part of South America in 1530 and found a weakened empire that had just finished a civil war. Using horses, Spanish arms, courage, luck, etc. he captured the Inca and killed him after getting millions in ransom. He then, with the help of European disease, managed to conquer and rule the entire Andean Mountains Empire. 38. Incas - They were a people who settled in an Andes Mountain valley in South America around the 11th century. They expanded into other valleys and by 1400 had conquered distant regions. By 1500, they had an empire of over 12 million people, over 20 languages and over 100 ethnic groups. They held their empire together with a highly organized government system, road system and by absorbing the conquered peoples into their own culture. 39. Atahualpa - He was a descendant of the Sun God and was worshipped as an absolute ruler. Winner of the civil war just before Pizarro’s 1531 arrival, he met the Spanish conquistador and after a battle was held captive for ransom. He told Pizarro “In my kingdom no bird flies, no leaf quivers if I do not will it.” Pizarro had him strangled after getting 8-9 million dollars worth of gold and silver ransom. 40. Spanish Expansion - It was the widening of Spanish control where both Cortes and Pizarro sent out small groups to control new regions. Cortes’ men moved into Central America. Pizarro’s men took Ecuador, Columbia and Chile. Other Spaniards settled Argentina. 41. Brazil - It is the area of South America settled by Portugal. The Portuguese, fearing a Spanish takeover, established 15-armed towns up and down the coast. The name means “live coal” in reference to a wood that they found that produced a bright red dye. Page 379 42. Portuguese - They were the people from the Iberian peninsula who explored down the coast of Africa and eventually found an all water route to India. They fought the Muslims for control of the spice trade In the Indian Ocean in the early 1500s and won. They set up colonies along the African coast, in India, Brazil and China. In 1560 their spice trade monopoly was ended when Spain took over their government and the Dutch took control of the spice trade. 43. Spanish - They challenged Portugal for domination of the sea exploration to find routes to the Far East. Their country financed Christopher Columbus and took advantage of his New World discoveries. One of them found and conquered Mexico and another conquered the Incas. Both sent back much gold and silver which made them the dominant power in Europe during the 16th century. 44. Effect of Disease - It was the Indian suffering from European viruses such as smallpox, scarlet fever, influenza, chicken pox, plague and measles. It was the greatest population reduction in recorded history. The estimated 15 to 25 million Indians, who lived in Latin America before Columbus, were reduced to about 4 million within one hundred years of Columbus’s arrival. 45. Missionaries - They are people who want to advance religious ideas and wish to convert others to their faith. They were Christians who came to the New World to convert Indians to the Catholic religion. They set up churches, schools, founded hospitals and explored frontier areas. 46. Population Factor - It was one of the key contributors to the success or failure of European countries colonies. During the Age of Exploration countries such as Portugal and the Netherlands did not have the numbers for heavy settlement and this led to colonial loss over time. Countries such as Spain and England were able to heavily settle their colonies, which contributed to colonial success. 47. English - They were the people who defeated the Spanish Armada. They attempted to colonize the American mainland and successfully did so in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. By 1640 they had 60,000 people living in their Atlantic Coast colonies. 48. British East India Company - It was the private business set up in 1600 by the English to trade for spices in the Far East. As the power of Portugal declined, they gained control of wealthy trading posts in India. 49. Samuel de Champlain - He was the French explorer who established the first permanent French settlement in North America, at Quebec, in 1608. He explored the northern New York area, the Ottawa River and the Great Lakes. 50. French - They were the European people who explored from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi River and claimed it. Unlike the English they did not allow their religious minorities to settle in their colonies. They fished, trapped and had a small colony along the Saint Lawrence. More colonists settled in southern Louisiana and some Caribbean Islands like Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, etc. but never in great numbers. 51. Dutch - They were the people of the Netherlands who took over much of the Portuguese East Indian spice trade. They set up an East Indian Company similar to the British one in 1602 and dominated this trade until the end of the 1700s. They also settled some East Indian islands, West Indian islands, a spot on the South American coast, the island of Manhattan, etc. Their population was too small for heavy settlement of their colonies. Page 382 and related 52. Commercial Revolution - It was the economic change caused by the influx of money in the form of gold and silver found in the New World. Modern capitalism grew with new industries such as banking and insurance being established. Capitalism developed and manufacturing increased as competition increased. Guilds declined and lower classes were pushed down into deep poverty by inflation. The Italian trade monopoly was ended and a world trade system funneled through the European Atlantic ports started. 53. European Colonial Trade Goods - Europeans brought large shipments of spices, gems, paper, ivory, porcelain, textiles, tea and coffee from Asia and the Middle East. Central and South America shipped gold, silver, tobacco, cocoa, vanilla and corn to Europe. North America exported furs, codfish, wood and turpentine to Europe. The West Indies produced sugar, molasses, rum, and indigo for Europe. From Africa to Europe came hardwoods, ivory, gold and ostrich feathers. Europe sent manufactured goods in return. 54. Slave Trade - It was the trading in human labor. This had been done for thousands of years but after 1450 it’s character changed from a temporary to permanent condition based on African heritage. Because of the need for labor in the European colonies, demand became high. Africans began selling other Africans captured in war to Europeans. About 20 million Africans were shipped to the Americas between the 17th and 19th centuries in filthy crowded ships. At least one fourth died on the voyage and many more at hard labor in the colonies. A lasting racial prejudice developed in the Americas and European countries because of this. 55. Joint-Stock Company - It was a new business practice that developed during the commercial revolution. A person could gain part ownership in a company by buying shares of it. If the company made a profit, each shareholder received a dividend. If there was no profit, then the value of the shares went down. This business practice made it possible to put together larger amounts of money for business use than what any single merchant could amass alone. The Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company were examples. 56. Mercantilism - It was the idea that to be strong, a country had to export more than it imported. Countries tried to sell as much as they could to other countries while buying as little as possible in return. In this economic system colonies were important sources of raw materials and closed markets for the mother country. 57. Inflation - It is the increase in the average price of all goods and services. In 16th and 17th century Europe, long-term price increases were caused by the influx of gold and silver from the New World. This increased the money supply, which caused increased demand for goods, which could not be produced fast enough to keep up. In short, this low supply, high demand caused price increases. 58. Revolution in World Ecology - It was the geographic exchange of foods, insects, exotic plants, animals, disease germs, etc. brought on by the Geographic Revolution. For example in the case of foods, new crops such as corn, potatoes, manioc, squash, peppers, cacao, etc. went from the New World to all parts of the rest of the world. European foods such as wheat, rye, oats, etc. went to the Americas. 59. Spread of Disease - It was the geographic exchange of disease. The most feared pestilence in European history, the Black Death came to Europe from Asia by way of the Silk Route and a trade vessel from the Crimean Peninsula. Europeans in turn carried it to the New World and elsewhere. European viruses such as small pox, scarlet fever, influenza, chicken pox, plague and measles were spread to the New World. In return American Indian afflictions of polio, venereal syphilis, hepatitis and yaws spread to Europe. 60. Maria Sybilla Merian - She was a Dutch naturalist who went to the South American Dutch colony of Surinam (now Suriname). She studied new insect species and plants and published her work in 1705 with hand colored engravings. She was among the first to study the process of metamorphosis of caterpillars into butterflies. She gave Europeans realistic images of America’s tropical plants and insects and they were among the first such paintings made from direct observation. She advanced science and art. 61. Chocolate - It was the first nonalcoholic stimulant drink Europeans ever encountered. Hernan Cortes learned of this drink from the Aztecs and introduced it into Spain. During the 17th and 18th centuries this rich drink, without the fat being removed, was usually thickened with ground nuts. Later sugar was added because it was otherwise a very bitter beverage. Article: Captain Cook Anthropologist 62. Captain Cook – English naval officer and explorer who carried out scientific exploration in the Pacific and discovered the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). He explored the coasts of Australia, New Zeeland, and Western North America. Natives killed him in Hawaii in 1779. Page 459 63. Viceroy – A representative of the Spanish king who ruled a royal Spanish colony. 64. Peninsulares – Name given in the Spanish colonies to Spanish born officials. American born Spaniards were denied important government jobs and were otherwise discriminated against even though their only social background difference was location of their birth. 65. Creoles – Children born in Latin America whose parents were born in Spain. They had a lower social rank because of the location of their birth. 66. Mestizos – People of mixed descent, especially children of Spanish soldiers and Indian women in Latin America. They had an even lower social standing than the creoles and were not socially accepted by either the creoles or Indian population. They were farmers on rented land, shopkeepers, craftspeople and soldiers. They soon became the largest group in colonial Latin America. Page 462 67. Encomienda – The system of forced labor in Latin America used by Spanish settlers. They used conquered Indians and African slaves very much like serfs from the Middle Ages. 68. Missionaries – People who want to advance Christianity by witnessing and setting up churches for those converted. Catholic missionaries also set up schools, hospitals and explored frontiers areas. 69. Slaves From Africa – Over 11 million people were shipped as slaves from Africa to the Spanish colonies and several million died because of the terrible conditions on the slave ships. Many worked the sugar plantations in the Caribbean islands. Later others worked the mainland plantations growing cacao, rice, cotton and tobacco. Still others did the heavy mine labor. 70. Caribbean Sugar Plantations – The slave conditions on the sugar plantations were brutal. Owners did not care how slaves were treated and slaves were often worked to death and replaced by new ones. This was economically cheaper than treating slaves better so they could live longer. Work done by women was so heavy that few babies were born and those that were seldom lived to adulthood. 71. Slave Rebellions – Given the condition of slavery in Latin America there were many slave uprisings. Most were generally brutally put down. Some slave managed to run away and live in hiding in remote areas for years. 72. Pierre Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture – He lead the successful 1791 slave revolt in Haiti. He established a government in Haiti and promoted good relations between blacks and whites. He defied Napoleon’s orders and was captured by the French in 1802. He died there in 1803. He is the symbol for black independence in the Americas. Page 464 73. Latin America – South America, Central America, Mexico, and most of the West Indies. The name for this world region comes from the Latin derived languages spoken their i.e. Spanish and Portuguese. 74. European Cultural Dominance – Spain and Portugal conquered Latin America so their religion (Catholic) and languages replaced the native ones. They also imported European vegetables, animals, legal systems, forms of government, ideas of private property, education systems for the higher social class, etc. 75. Social Status of Women – Both the Spanish and Portuguese thought women did not need higher education and considered women not equal to men. They thought the main role of women was to have children. Poor women and slaves also did heavy labor. Higher-class women were expected to remain in the background and have no public life.