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World History and Geography Study List
AGE OF EXPLORATION
Hint: Review Middle Ages List Numbers 5-10
1. Jeng Ho - He was a Ming court official. He led seven Chinese naval expeditions
to Malaysia, Sri Lanka, India, and even as far as Africa on some voyages. His
overseas explorations and trade were the high point of Ming culture.
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2. “The Age of Exploration” - It was Europe’s discovery of new lands and new
trade routes which led to economic and cultural changes that revolutionized lives
of people around the world. It lasted from about 1400 into the 1700s.
3. Expand Trade Routes and Spread Christianity - They were the reasons why
Columbus and other Europeans sailed the uncharted oceans after 1400. One was
the high value Europeans placed on goods from India and Asia which caused
people to risk long voyages into unknown waters. The Great Commission by
Christ to the Church was the other reason.
4. Advancements in Naval Technology - They were the developments needed to
make exploration by ship possible. They were square and triangular sails for
sailing with and against the wind, the compass and astrolabe for figuring location
and direction, shipbuilding improvements, etc.
5. Prince Henry the Navigator - He was the member of the royal family of
Portugal. In the early 1400s he set up a naval school in Portugal. He was
responsible for fostering the development of naval advances such as the astrolabe,
compass and more advanced ships able to make long sea voyages. However, he
never went sailing himself.
6. Successes of Portuguese Exploration - They were yearly voyages of exploration
along the coast of Africa starting in 1415 as initiated by Prince Henry the
Navigator. They were the Portuguese discovery and claim of the Azores, the
Madeira Islands, the Cape Verde Islands and claim of land down the African coast
to the Gold Coast, by 1460 when Prince Henry died. In 1488 Dias reached the tip
of South Africa and in 1498 da Gama reached India.
7. Bartolomeu Dias - He sailed for Portugal in 1487-88 down the coast of Africa.
He successfully rounded the cape at the southern tip and proved that Africa could
be sailed around. He named this southern tip of Africa “Cape of Storms” and
King John II renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.”
8. Vasco da Gama - He sailed in exploration for Portugal. He followed Dias route
south along the coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. He continued across
the Indian Ocean and reached India in 1490. He was responsible for breaking the
Muslim and Italian monopoly on the Indian spice trade. He returned to Portugal
with a cargo of cinnamon and pepper after avoiding being killed by the Muslims.
He became a hero.
9. Christopher Columbus - He was an Italian sailor who was an expert in
navigation. In 1492 he achieved his dream of sailing west toward the Far East. He
claimed a number of Caribbean Islands for Spain. He made a total of four voyages
to the new lands and explored through the islands all the way to the coasts of
South America and Central America. His reports of his findings started the
Geographic Revolution
10. Amerigo Vespucci - He was an Italian navigator and one of the first people to
deduce that Columbus’ newly discovered lands were not part of Asia. He claimed
to have made a number of voyages to the New World. The accuracy of this claim
is disputed and he may never even have left Europe. A German who used his first
name to label the new continent published his accounts in 1507
11. Line of Demarcation - It was the final solution to the dispute between Spain and
Portugal over claims of newly discovered land. Portugal disagreed with the
Pope’s division and they negotiated a boundary with Spain in the Treaty of
Tordesillas, in 1494. All the lands 900 miles west of an imaginary north-south
line were to go to Spain and all those east to Portugal.
Explorers: Christopher Columbus or Film: Ten Who Dared: Columbus and Columbus
handout
12. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand - They are the joint monarchs of Spain.
After completing the Reconquista in 1492 they financed the westward
explorations of Columbus. The story that She sold her jewels to finance
Columbus is a myth.
13. Tainos - They were the Indians who greeted Columbus in 1492. They shared the
food tapioca with the Spanish and a new idea in sleep bedding, hammocks. The
Spanish in turn enslaved some of them and passed diseases to them so that they
died by the thousands. They may have numbered one million in 1492 and by 1515
they numbered 30,000.
14. Hispaniola - It is the island Columbus ran aground on in the Santa Maria. He
founded the first New World settlement here at Navidad on his first voyage. On
his second voyage, Columbus founded the settlement of Isabella on the north
coast of this island. On his third voyage Columbus was put in chains on this island
because of his mismanagement of the colony. Today this island has two countries
on it - Haiti and Dominican Republic.
15. Carib Indians - They were the hostile Indians who greeted Columbus on his
second voyage to the Caribbean. They may have wanted to have Columbus and
his crew over for dinner. They were so violent in their invitation that they forced
Columbus to have his ship ram their canoes to show his refusal to dine. It is just
as well that he declined the invitation since they were cannibals.
16. Caravel - It was a wide ship that could carry heavy cargo and sail in shallow
waters. It was developed by Prince Henry the Navigator for use in long-range
exploration. Columbus used this type of ship on his first voyage.
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17. Pedro Cabral - He was the Portuguese navigator in 1500 who was appointed to
follow da Gama’s route and establish trade with the East Indies. He took a
westward course around Africa and accidentally discovered Brazil and claimed it
for Portugal. He continued on, losing 4 of 13 ships off the Cape of Good Hope in
a storm. He reached Calicut, India and established a trading post there. He
returned safely.
18. Vasco de Balboa - He began the first successful settlement on the American
mainland in Panama in 1510. In 1513, he crossed through Panama’s deadly
swamps, jungle and mountain range to the other side of the Isthmus. He was the
first European to discover what he called the South Sea which was in fact the
Pacific Ocean. In 1519 he was arrested on false treason charges and killed by
Francisco Pizzaro.
19. Francisco Pizarro - He was the Spanish conquistador who set out with 160 men
to conquer the largest of the American Indian Empires. He arrived in the Peru part
of South America in 1530 and found a weakened empire which had just finished a
civil war. Using horses, Spanish arms, courage, luck, etc. he captured the Inca and
killed him after getting millions in ransom. He then, with the help of European
disease, managed to conquer and rule the entire Andean Mountains Empire.
20. Juan Ponce de Leon - He sailed on Columbus’ second voyage and later became
governor of Puerto Rico and founded San Juan in 1511. In 1513 he started his
search for Bimini, an island said to have the Fountain of Youth. He discovered
Florida and searched both sides. He searched through the Bahama islands but
never found the mythical fountain. In 1521, he attempted to settle Florida but was
wounded and driven off by the Indians. He died after returning to Cuba. His
exploration was the basis of Spain’s claim to Florida.
21. Hernando de Soto - He received permission to conquer Florida in 1537. He
landed in Florida in 1539 and explored for 3 years going northward in a fruitless
search for gold. He had constant conflicts with the Indians and in 1541 discovered
and crossed the Mississippi river. He explored all the way to Oklahoma before
turning back. He died on the banks of the Mississippi River and his body was
sunk in the river to keep Indians from desecrating it. Almost all his companions
died before reaching civilization.
22. Francisco de Coronado - He was sent to find the legendary seven cities of gold
and explored what is now the southwest United States. He discovered the Grand
Canyon, and then cut cross-country to the Pueblos. Next he explored up the Rio
Grand Valley and onto the Great Plains all the way to eastern Kansas. He failed to
find riches, but did bring back valuable geographic information.
23. Ferdinand Magellan - He fulfilled Columbus’ dream of finding an all water
route around the world. Starting in 1519 he sailed west to southern South America
with five ships. The stormy weather at the bottom of the world made finding the
route through the maze of islands in the strait difficult. He sailed for three lean
months across the Pacific without seeing land until he reached the Philippines.
There he was killed in a local tribal war. His men continued on. Eighteen men and
only one ship, loaded with a cargo of spices, returned to Spain after three years of
voyaging all the way around the world.
24. Pacific Ocean - It is the largest ocean in the world. It’s name means peaceful
because when Magellan sailed across it he encountered no storms. Magellan’s
crossing this ocean was Europe’s first indication of it’s real size. The first
European to see this ocean was Vasco de Balboa, who gazed upon it in 1513.
25. Northwest Passage - It is the supposed sea route around North America searched
for by English and French explorers. This route was to be a short cut to China.
The exploration for this route eventually led to French and English land claims in
North America.
26. John Cabot - He was an Italian navigator who sailed for England in 1497 in the
first voyage to find the Northwest Passage. He found Cape Breton Island on his
first voyage and on his second explored Greenland’s east and west coasts, reached
Baffin Land and Newfoundland. He continued south to the 38th parallel before he
died. He claimed these lands for England.
27. Jacques Cartier - He sailed for France 35 years after Cabot did for England
searching for the Northwest Passage. On his three voyages he found and sailed up
the Saint Lawrence River as far as present day Montreal and attempted to
colonize Canada in 1541-1542. His voyage and claims conflicted with Cabot’s
and set the stage for future wars between France and England over North
America.
28. Sir Francis Drake - He was a privateer who on three expeditions plundered the
Spanish West Indies - both towns and shipping in the 1570s. He hiked across the
Isthmus of Panama and became the first English commander to see the Pacific.
Since the Atlantic coast search for the Northwest Passage had failed, he was sent
by Queen Elizabeth in 1577 to search America’s west coast. He explored the
Strait of Magellan and then worked his way north plundering the Spanish along
the coast of Chile and Peru. He named California New Albion and claimed it, but
failed to find the Northwest Passage back to the Atlantic. He continued on around
the world becoming the first Englishman to do so, in 1580. He later helped led the
successful fight against the Spanish Armada and started Britain on the road to its
domination of the seas.
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29. Hispaniola - It is the island Columbus ran aground on in the Santa Maria. He
founded the first New World settlement here at Navidad on his first voyage. On
his second voyage, Columbus founded the settlement of Isabella on the north
coast of this island. On his third voyage Columbus was put in chains on this island
because of his mismanagement of the colony. Its settlement started the conquest
of the Americas by Europeans and laid the basis for the countries of Latin
America. Today this Island has two countries on it - Haiti and Dominican
Republic.
30. Hernando Cortes - He was the leader of the Spanish expedition that landed on
the coast of Mexico in 1519. He founded Veracruz and destroyed his fleet before
marching inland. He defeated them, and then made an alliance with tribes that
hated the Aztecs. He entered Mexico City at Aztec invitation and took
Montezuma hostage. After Montezuma’s death, he was forced out of the city by
the Aztec revolt, after severe fighting in 1520. He returned, assaulted Mexico City
in 1521, captured it and conquered the Aztecs.
31. Conquistadors - They were the Spanish conquerors that came to the New World
in search of adventure and gold.
32. Malinche - She was a young Aztec woman who was one of 20 slaves given to
Cortes by the Maya. She knew both Maya and the Aztec language and she acted
as both a diplomat and informant for Cortes. She even saved Cortes’s life when
she discovered an Indian plot to kill him.
33. Vera Cruz - It was a coastal city with a good harbor founded by Cortes. It is
located up the coast from the Yucatan peninsula.
34. Montezuma - He was “The Chief of Men.” As head of the Aztec government he
was looked upon as nearly a god. He found very unusual omens marking the
arrival of the Spanish and at first took them to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl.
He ended up being imprisoned by the Spanish and killed by a thrown rock during
a battle between his people and the Spanish.
35. Tenochtitlan - It was the capital of the Aztec Empire. This City was located on
an island in Lake Texcoco where the Aztecs had been given a sign to settle. Land
had been built up by draining the lake and fill of dirt/vegetation mixture was
added in the shallow areas to cover about 5 square miles. It had causeways to the
mainland and was easy to defend.
36. Mexico City - It was the new name given to the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, after
the Spanish conquered it.
37. Francisco Pizarro - He was the Spanish conquistador who set out with 160 men
to conquer the largest of the American Indian Empires. He arrived in the Peru part
of South America in 1530 and found a weakened empire that had just finished a
civil war. Using horses, Spanish arms, courage, luck, etc. he captured the Inca and
killed him after getting millions in ransom. He then, with the help of European
disease, managed to conquer and rule the entire Andean Mountains Empire.
38. Incas - They were a people who settled in an Andes Mountain valley in South
America around the 11th century. They expanded into other valleys and by 1400
had conquered distant regions. By 1500, they had an empire of over 12 million
people, over 20 languages and over 100 ethnic groups. They held their empire
together with a highly organized government system, road system and by
absorbing the conquered peoples into their own culture.
39. Atahualpa - He was a descendant of the Sun God and was worshipped as an
absolute ruler. Winner of the civil war just before Pizarro’s 1531 arrival, he met
the Spanish conquistador and after a battle was held captive for ransom. He told
Pizarro “In my kingdom no bird flies, no leaf quivers if I do not will it.” Pizarro
had him strangled after getting 8-9 million dollars worth of gold and silver
ransom.
40. Spanish Expansion - It was the widening of Spanish control where both Cortes
and Pizarro sent out small groups to control new regions. Cortes’ men moved into
Central America. Pizarro’s men took Ecuador, Columbia and Chile. Other
Spaniards settled Argentina.
41. Brazil - It is the area of South America settled by Portugal. The Portuguese,
fearing a Spanish takeover, established 15-armed towns up and down the coast.
The name means “live coal” in reference to a wood that they found that produced
a bright red dye.
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42. Portuguese - They were the people from the Iberian peninsula who explored
down the coast of Africa and eventually found an all water route to India. They
fought the Muslims for control of the spice trade In the Indian Ocean in the early
1500s and won. They set up colonies along the African coast, in India, Brazil and
China. In 1560 their spice trade monopoly was ended when Spain took over their
government and the Dutch took control of the spice trade.
43. Spanish - They challenged Portugal for domination of the sea exploration to find
routes to the Far East. Their country financed Christopher Columbus and took
advantage of his New World discoveries. One of them found and conquered
Mexico and another conquered the Incas. Both sent back much gold and silver
which made them the dominant power in Europe during the 16th century.
44. Effect of Disease - It was the Indian suffering from European viruses such as
smallpox, scarlet fever, influenza, chicken pox, plague and measles. It was the
greatest population reduction in recorded history. The estimated 15 to 25 million
Indians, who lived in Latin America before Columbus, were reduced to about 4
million within one hundred years of Columbus’s arrival.
45. Missionaries - They are people who want to advance religious ideas and wish to
convert others to their faith. They were Christians who came to the New World to
convert Indians to the Catholic religion. They set up churches, schools, founded
hospitals and explored frontier areas.
46. Population Factor - It was one of the key contributors to the success or failure of
European countries colonies. During the Age of Exploration countries such as
Portugal and the Netherlands did not have the numbers for heavy settlement and
this led to colonial loss over time. Countries such as Spain and England were able
to heavily settle their colonies, which contributed to colonial success.
47. English - They were the people who defeated the Spanish Armada. They
attempted to colonize the American mainland and successfully did so in 1607 at
Jamestown, Virginia. By 1640 they had 60,000 people living in their Atlantic
Coast colonies.
48. British East India Company - It was the private business set up in 1600 by the
English to trade for spices in the Far East. As the power of Portugal declined, they
gained control of wealthy trading posts in India.
49. Samuel de Champlain - He was the French explorer who established the first
permanent French settlement in North America, at Quebec, in 1608. He explored
the northern New York area, the Ottawa River and the Great Lakes.
50. French - They were the European people who explored from the Great Lakes to
the mouth of the Mississippi River and claimed it. Unlike the English they did not
allow their religious minorities to settle in their colonies. They fished, trapped and
had a small colony along the Saint Lawrence. More colonists settled in southern
Louisiana and some Caribbean Islands like Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, etc.
but never in great numbers.
51. Dutch - They were the people of the Netherlands who took over much of the
Portuguese East Indian spice trade. They set up an East Indian Company similar
to the British one in 1602 and dominated this trade until the end of the 1700s.
They also settled some East Indian islands, West Indian islands, a spot on the
South American coast, the island of Manhattan, etc. Their population was too
small for heavy settlement of their colonies.
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52. Commercial Revolution - It was the economic change caused by the influx of
money in the form of gold and silver found in the New World. Modern capitalism
grew with new industries such as banking and insurance being established.
Capitalism developed and manufacturing increased as competition increased.
Guilds declined and lower classes were pushed down into deep poverty by
inflation. The Italian trade monopoly was ended and a world trade system
funneled through the European Atlantic ports started.
53. European Colonial Trade Goods - Europeans brought large shipments of spices,
gems, paper, ivory, porcelain, textiles, tea and coffee from Asia and the Middle
East. Central and South America shipped gold, silver, tobacco, cocoa, vanilla and
corn to Europe. North America exported furs, codfish, wood and turpentine to
Europe. The West Indies produced sugar, molasses, rum, and indigo for Europe.
From Africa to Europe came hardwoods, ivory, gold and ostrich feathers. Europe
sent manufactured goods in return.
54. Slave Trade - It was the trading in human labor. This had been done for
thousands of years but after 1450 it’s character changed from a temporary to
permanent condition based on African heritage. Because of the need for labor in
the European colonies, demand became high. Africans began selling other
Africans captured in war to Europeans. About 20 million Africans were shipped
to the Americas between the 17th and 19th centuries in filthy crowded ships. At
least one fourth died on the voyage and many more at hard labor in the colonies.
A lasting racial prejudice developed in the Americas and European countries
because of this.
55. Joint-Stock Company - It was a new business practice that developed during the
commercial revolution. A person could gain part ownership in a company by
buying shares of it. If the company made a profit, each shareholder received a
dividend. If there was no profit, then the value of the shares went down. This
business practice made it possible to put together larger amounts of money for
business use than what any single merchant could amass alone. The Dutch East
India Company and the British East India Company were examples.
56. Mercantilism - It was the idea that to be strong, a country had to export more
than it imported. Countries tried to sell as much as they could to other countries
while buying as little as possible in return. In this economic system colonies were
important sources of raw materials and closed markets for the mother country.
57. Inflation - It is the increase in the average price of all goods and services. In 16th
and 17th century Europe, long-term price increases were caused by the influx of
gold and silver from the New World. This increased the money supply, which
caused increased demand for goods, which could not be produced fast enough to
keep up. In short, this low supply, high demand caused price increases.
58. Revolution in World Ecology - It was the geographic exchange of foods, insects,
exotic plants, animals, disease germs, etc. brought on by the Geographic
Revolution. For example in the case of foods, new crops such as corn, potatoes,
manioc, squash, peppers, cacao, etc. went from the New World to all parts of the
rest of the world. European foods such as wheat, rye, oats, etc. went to the
Americas.
59. Spread of Disease - It was the geographic exchange of disease. The most feared
pestilence in European history, the Black Death came to Europe from Asia by
way of the Silk Route and a trade vessel from the Crimean Peninsula. Europeans
in turn carried it to the New World and elsewhere. European viruses such as small
pox, scarlet fever, influenza, chicken pox, plague and measles were spread to the
New World. In return American Indian afflictions of polio, venereal syphilis,
hepatitis and yaws spread to Europe.
60. Maria Sybilla Merian - She was a Dutch naturalist who went to the South
American Dutch colony of Surinam (now Suriname). She studied new insect
species and plants and published her work in 1705 with hand colored engravings.
She was among the first to study the process of metamorphosis of caterpillars into
butterflies. She gave Europeans realistic images of America’s tropical plants and
insects and they were among the first such paintings made from direct
observation. She advanced science and art.
61. Chocolate - It was the first nonalcoholic stimulant drink Europeans ever
encountered. Hernan Cortes learned of this drink from the Aztecs and introduced
it into Spain. During the 17th and 18th centuries this rich drink, without the fat
being removed, was usually thickened with ground nuts. Later sugar was added
because it was otherwise a very bitter beverage.
Article: Captain Cook Anthropologist
62. Captain Cook – English naval officer and explorer who carried out scientific
exploration in the Pacific and discovered the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). He
explored the coasts of Australia, New Zeeland, and Western North America.
Natives killed him in Hawaii in 1779.
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63. Viceroy – A representative of the Spanish king who ruled a royal Spanish colony.
64. Peninsulares – Name given in the Spanish colonies to Spanish born officials.
American born Spaniards were denied important government jobs and were
otherwise discriminated against even though their only social background
difference was location of their birth.
65. Creoles – Children born in Latin America whose parents were born in Spain.
They had a lower social rank because of the location of their birth.
66. Mestizos – People of mixed descent, especially children of Spanish soldiers and
Indian women in Latin America. They had an even lower social standing than the
creoles and were not socially accepted by either the creoles or Indian population.
They were farmers on rented land, shopkeepers, craftspeople and soldiers. They
soon became the largest group in colonial Latin America.
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67. Encomienda – The system of forced labor in Latin America used by Spanish
settlers. They used conquered Indians and African slaves very much like serfs
from the Middle Ages.
68. Missionaries – People who want to advance Christianity by witnessing and
setting up churches for those converted. Catholic missionaries also set up
schools, hospitals and explored frontiers areas.
69. Slaves From Africa – Over 11 million people were shipped as slaves from Africa
to the Spanish colonies and several million died because of the terrible conditions
on the slave ships. Many worked the sugar plantations in the Caribbean islands.
Later others worked the mainland plantations growing cacao, rice, cotton and
tobacco. Still others did the heavy mine labor.
70. Caribbean Sugar Plantations – The slave conditions on the sugar plantations
were brutal. Owners did not care how slaves were treated and slaves were often
worked to death and replaced by new ones. This was economically cheaper than
treating slaves better so they could live longer. Work done by women was so
heavy that few babies were born and those that were seldom lived to adulthood.
71. Slave Rebellions – Given the condition of slavery in Latin America there were
many slave uprisings. Most were generally brutally put down. Some slave
managed to run away and live in hiding in remote areas for years.
72. Pierre Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture – He lead the successful 1791 slave
revolt in Haiti. He established a government in Haiti and promoted good relations
between blacks and whites. He defied Napoleon’s orders and was captured by the
French in 1802. He died there in 1803. He is the symbol for black independence
in the Americas.
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73. Latin America – South America, Central America, Mexico, and most of the West
Indies. The name for this world region comes from the Latin derived languages
spoken their i.e. Spanish and Portuguese.
74. European Cultural Dominance – Spain and Portugal conquered Latin America
so their religion (Catholic) and languages replaced the native ones. They also
imported European vegetables, animals, legal systems, forms of government,
ideas of private property, education systems for the higher social class, etc.
75. Social Status of Women – Both the Spanish and Portuguese thought women did
not need higher education and considered women not equal to men. They thought
the main role of women was to have children. Poor women and slaves also did
heavy labor. Higher-class women were expected to remain in the background and
have no public life.