* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Document
Preposition and postposition wikipedia , lookup
Junction Grammar wikipedia , lookup
Comparison (grammar) wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Cognitive semantics wikipedia , lookup
Semantic holism wikipedia , lookup
Distributed morphology wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Word-sense disambiguation wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Meaning (philosophy of language) wikipedia , lookup
Agglutination wikipedia , lookup
Compound (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Contraction (grammar) wikipedia , lookup
Untranslatability wikipedia , lookup
Symbol grounding problem wikipedia , lookup
Morphology (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
An Introduction To English Lexicology What will we learn in this course? The relations between language, linguistics and lexicology 1) What is language/linguistics/lexicology? What are the aims and significance of the English lexicology course? What is the connection of lexicology with other branches of linguistics? Two approaches to the study of English lexicology 2) 3) 4) What will we learn in this course? The sources of the English vocabulary 1) The position and character of the English language in the Indo-European Family (印欧语系) The division of the history of the English language and the characteristics of the English language for each period Classifications of English words—native and borrowed words The influence of foreign elements upon the English vocabulary 2) 3) 4) What will we learn in this course? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Word meaning and semantic relations The relationship between meaning and the object Meaning and motivation (理据) What is a word and how words are classified? Word meaning and context Synonyms, antonyms, polysemy, homonymy (同音、同形异义) and hyponymy (上下义) What will we learn in this course? The changing English vocabulary 1) The definition, sources and formation of neologisms 2) The definition, sources and formation of archaisms 3) Four tendencies in semantic changes 4) Semantic changes from the literal use of words to their figurative use What will we learn in this course? 1) 2) 3) 4) Word-formation in English Morphological structure of words Two types of Morpheme (词素)—free form and bound form Three types of words—simple words, compound words and complex words The main/minor processes of word-formation What will we learn in this course? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) English idioms What are idioms? What are the features of idioms? English idioms in different styles (文体) The difference between idiomatic and free phrases Classifications of English idioms What will we learn in this course? British and American English Differences between British English and American English: 1) differences in individual sounds 2) differences in stress 3) differences in spelling 4) differences in vocabulary 5) differences in grammar Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1.1.1 Introductory Remarks Question: What’s the relationship between language, linguistics and lexicology? Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Answer: Briefly speaking, lexicology deals with words. Words are the foundation and core of language. Without words, there would be no language; Without language, there would be no linguistics. Therefore, lexicology, language and linguistics are very closely interrelated with one another. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1.1.2 A Definition of Language Question 1 : What is the difference between natural language and artificial language? Question 2 : What is Language/How language is defined? Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Answer 1 : By language, we mean human language, namely, natural language. Artificial language refers to language that mathematicians, logicians and computer scientists use in their work. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Answer 2 : A definition from different angles (Zhao Shikai) 1. Language is a social action and a carrier of information. 2. Language is a system of structure. It contains phonetics and phonology (音位学)vocabulary and meaning, morphology (形态学)and syntax (句法学). Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 3. Language is a social phenomenon because it is an instrument of human communication in a society. 4. Language is a physiological phenomenon because it is connected with the organs of speech (发音器官), the nervous system and muscular activities (肌肉活动). Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 5. Language is a psychological phenomenon because it is closely related to man’s psychological activities. 6. Language is also a physical phenomenon owing to the propagation (transmission) of speech sounds. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology On the basis of the above mentioned points language may be defined as follows: Language is a system of symbols (符号)based on physiology, psychology and physics. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-1-3 Language, Society and Thought From the historical development of language we see that any language reflects the culture of a society in a particular period. Therefore language is a mirror reflecting the culture of a society. We cannot find many Modern English in Old English or Middle English. For example: Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology cybercafé (1994, n) a café or coffee shop providing computers for access to the Internet docudrama (1961, n) a drama made for television, motion picture, or theater dealing freely with historical events, esp of a recent and controversial nature Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology moonwalk (1984, n/v) 1) an instance of walking on the moon; 2) to dance by gliding backwards while appearing to make forward walking motions prolife (1972, adj) antiabortion Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology These examples prove that language changes with the development of a society. Therefore, Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. “Language is the cement of society, allowing people to live, work, and play together, to tell the truth but also to tell a lie, or lies.” (Wardhaugh) Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology As society is constantly in a state of development, so is language. Society depends upon language for its existence. As society develops, new objects are created that require the invention of new words and expressions. We can use some words concerning means of transport before the invention of the locomotive and the motor car to illustrate this phenomenon. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1. berlin ( German origin) a four-wheeled covered carriage with the seat behind 2. buggy a light carriage, pulled by one horse for one or two passengers 3. caravan ( French origin) a four-wheeled covered carriage used as mobile home, by people on holiday 4. Coach ( Hungarian origin) a four-wheeled carriage, pulled by four or more horses carry passengers and mail before railways Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 5. gig a small light two-wheeled carriage, pulled by one horse 6. troika (Russian origin) a four-wheeled carriage, pulled by three horses With the appearance of the automobile, horsedrawn carriages fell into disuse in most parts of the wirld. Other vehicles were introduced: Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology bus car Limousine a large luxurious often chauffeur-driven sedan that usually has a glass partition separating the driver’s seat from the passenger compartment Moped a lightweight lowpowered motorbike that can be pedaled Motorcycle a 2-wheeled automotive vehicle for one or two people SUV: sport-utility vehicle Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology trailer a vehicle designed to serve wherever parked as a temporary dwelling or place of business van a multipurpose enclosed motor vehicle having a boxlike shape, rear or side doors, and side panels often with windows Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Since the appearance of the airplane, there has appeared a list of names for this form of transport. For example: air bus a short-range or medium-range subsonic jet passenger airplane airplane helicopter jetliner: a jet-propelled airplane spacecraft or spaceship a vehicle manned or unmanned for travelling in space Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Question: What is the purpose for the three groups of examples concerning vehicles during different periods given above? Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is inseparable from society. Language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking there would be no human language. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology There are two main forms of language itself: the spoken word (speech), and the written symbols. Language is first and foremost a spoken thing. The written language is but a symbol of spoken words. Question: How do you understand language is first and foremost a spoken thing? Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. It is common to all people of society, irrespective of the classes which they belong to. Therefore there is no class character to language itself, but the way in which a person uses a language has an obvious class character. Question: How do you understand the above statement? Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-2-1 A Definition of Linguistics Generally speaking, linguistics is the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics is “the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification of language.” Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-2-2 The Scope of Linguistics According to traditional classification, linguistics consists of three branches: 1) phonetics 2) grammar 3) lexicology In the past few decades, especially in the 1960’s, the field of linguistics has expanded, and today includes: Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1) phonology (音位学) 2) syntax (句法学) 3) semantics (语义学) 4) phonetics 5) philology (语文学) 6) lexicology 7) stylistics Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 8) general linguistics (普通语言学) 9) descriptive linguistics (描写语言学) 10) contrastive linguistics (对比语言学) 11) comparative linguistics (比较语言学) 12) sociolinguistics (社会语言学) 13) psycholinguistics (心理语言学) 14) applied linguistics (应用语言学) Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 15) computational linguistics (计算语言学) 16) corpus linguistics (语料库语言学) 17) meta-linguistics (元语言学)(dealing with the relation between language and other cultural factors in a society) 18) and others Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-3-1 What is Lexicology? Comprehensively speaking, lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. Lexicology deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-3-2 Aims and Significance of the Course of English Lexicology Vocabulary is one of the three elements of language: speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology The aim of the course in English lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. Concretely speaking, English lexicology offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. 1) It deals with meanings of Modern English words and their changes in the course of historical development. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 2) It discusses the problems of word-structure and word-formation in English, including the formation of new words which have appeared since the 1960s. 3) It also studies the use of English words, phrases and idioms. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology The significance of the course is to help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use English words. For instance, The study of new words, synonyms, figures of speech, etc. will arouse the interest of the learners on the one hand, and enhance their ability to choose the correct and expressive words in writing and speech on the other hand. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-3-3 The Connection of Lexicology with Other Branches of Linguistics 1. With phonetics Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the sounds made in speech utterance(话语), that is, the study of speech sounds. It is closely related to lexicology. Without sound there is no word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 2. With grammar Vocabulary and grammar are organically related to one another. In learning a language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 3. With stylistics Stylistics is “the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language as characteristic of different uses of language, different situations of use, or different literary types.” Lexicology studies stylistic variants(文 体变体)on the basis of meanings of words and changes: synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech, etc. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Stylistics is concerned with language variety differing according to use rather than user. The same user may use different varieties for different purposes, different situations, in conversation with different people, to produce different effects. The same subject matter can be expressed in different styles, for example: Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1. My beloved parent has joined the great majority/has breathed his last. (literary) 2. My dear father has passed away. (euphemistic) 3. My father has died. (neutral) 4. My old man has kicked off/has gone west. (slang) 5. My dad has popped off. (colloquial) The stylistic range is achieved by means of different word choices. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Compare the following pairs of sentences and judge whether each of the sentences belongs to scientific or everyday English. (1) The contents of the bank are discharged by a pump. (2) Discharge of the contents of the tank is effected by a pump. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology (1) If we know the forces on the gear we can determine its size. (2) Knowledge of the forces on the gear makes possible the determination of its size. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 4. With historical linguistics Historical linguistics studies words from the viewpoint of diachrony(历时),whereas lexicology studies words from viewpoint of both synchrony(共时)and diachrony, but especially of synchrony. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology 1-3-4 Two Approaches to the Study of English Lexicology The term synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one point of time. A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology The term diachronic means concerned with historical development of a language. A diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time. The following are examples that illustrate the difference between the two approaches and their interrelation. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Synchronically, words like January, February, March, etc. are simply words, the names of the first, second, third, etc. months of the year. Diachronically, They are borrowed words from Latin. Before the Christ the earliest Roman calendar had 10 months. The first month we now call the third month was name Martius, meaning Mars in English. (For detail, see Section 1-3-4 in the textbook) Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Synchronically, words like Sunday, Monday, etc. are simple words. Diachronically, they existed as compounds in Old English. Synchronically, words like eventful, talkative, etc. are considered to be derivatives. Diachronically, they were hybrids(混合词), namely, words made of two parts, each from a different language. Event is a Latin root, -ful is an old English suffix. Talk is an old English root, -ative is a Latin suffix. Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Synchronically, the word fond means “like or affectionate,” but diachronically, it meant “foolish.” Similarly, the word comrade originally meant “roommate,” but now it means “fellow member of a political party.” Also, the word pioneer means “a person who is among the first to go into an area or country to settle or work there,” but in old times it meant “foot soldier.” Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology Nowadays language teachers as well as English lexicology teachers play close attention to the synchronic approach to the study of the English vocabulary. They describe what the English vocabulary is like, rather than how it came to be that way. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-1 What is etymology(词源学)? Etymology is a branch of linguistics concerned with etymologies. In short, etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Every word in English has its story, because the etymology of a word is basically a description of its history. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-2 The English People and English Language The English people are of a mixed blood. The early inhabitants of the island we now call England were Britons(凯尔特人). From the Britons the island got its name of Britain. In 55.B.C. Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror Julius Caesar. The Roman occupation lasted for about 4 hundred years. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary In 410 A.D. all the Roman troops returned to the continent, thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. At the beginning of the 5th century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes(朱特人, 日耳曼 民族) These three tribes merged into one people. And the three dialects they spoke naturally grew into a single language, the English language. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-3 Position and Character of the English Language in Indo-European Family English is classified as a Teutonic(条顿) language, that is, a Germanic language(日耳曼 语). To be more exact, English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. That is to say, English belongs to the group of language to which German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian also belong. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Character of English It shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures. Character of English More than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French. English has accepted words from other languages of the world. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-4 Divisions of The History of the English Language The history of the English language is divided into three periods: 1.The Old English or Anglo-Saxon period(450-1150) It is a period of full of inflections(屈折变化), since during most of this period the case (格) endings of the noun, the adjective, and the conjugation(动词变位) were not weakened. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2.The Middle English period(1150-1500) During this period the inflections, which had begun to break down towards the end of the Old English period, became greatly reduced, and it is known as the period of disappearing inflections. 3.The Modern English period(1500 to the present) A large part of original inflectional system has disappeared, and it is known as the period of lost inflections. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-5 Some Characteristics of Old English The English language of this period was formerly often described as Anglo-Saxon, because it was mostly Angles and Saxons who became the English people, but now it is referred to as Old English. Old English was rather different from Modern English in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The pronunciation of the Old English words differs somewhat from that of the Modern English words. (For detail, see Section 2-1-5) The vocabulary of Old English consisted mainly of Anglo-Saxon words. Old English was a highly inflected language. It had a complete system of declensions(名词、形容词、 代词的变格) with four cases and conjugations. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary There are two classes of languages in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language (综合语言) is one which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections. Examples of inflection: he him / child children actor actress / have has had Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary An analytic language (分析语言) is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order(词序), prepositions or auxiliary verbs(助动词), rather than by inflections. Question 1: Is Old English a synthetic language? Question 2: Modern English is an analytic language. Why? Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Answer 1: Old English is a synthetic language. Its nouns and adjectives have four cases: nominative case (主格), genitive case (possessive case), dative case (与格) and accusative case (宾格). In addition to four cases, every noun in Old English is also marked for gender. There are three genders: masculine (阳性), feminine (阴性) and neuter (中 性). Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Answer 2: Modern English is an analytic language. In Modern English, a noun used as a subject and object does not have different forms. There remain today only two case forms: nominative case and possessive case: man, man’s. Modern English depends on word order to show the relation of words in a sentence. Different word order may result in different meaning. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-6 Some Characteristics of Middle English The Conquest (1066) by the Norman French indicated the end of the Old English period and had a great effect on grammar and vocabulary. In grammar English has changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In this period many Old English words were lost, but thousands of words were borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable. Words borrowed from Old French: beef (buef/boef) pork (porc) bacon (bacon) beauty (beaute) music (musique) color or colour (colour) paint (peintier) administer (administrer) govern (governer) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The changes which affected the grammatical structure of English in this period were obvious. 1.According to the strong declension the noun forms were reduced from four forms to three forms 2.In the Middle English period grammatical gender disappeared, grammatical gender was completely replaced by the natural gender. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-7 Some Characteristics of Modern English The Modern English period can be divided into two parts: 1.The Early Modern English period (1500-1700) The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance (文艺 复兴). In this period the study of Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The following words came directly from Latin: Conspicuous=visible, striking Emancipate=declare free, give up Expectation=anticipation Exist=stand forth, appear, exist External=outside Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The following words are of Greek origin, but came in through Latin. Chaos=complete disorder or confusion Crisis System=organized whole, body Emphasis=significance, stress Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The following words are directly derived from Greek: Catastrophe=overturning, disaster Lexicon=wordbook Criterion=standard Anonymous=without the name known Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2.The Late Modern English period (after 1700) The 18th century in England was a time of stabilizing and purifying the English language. In the 18th century French greatly influenced English. The number of French words in the period from 1650 to 1800 increased rapidly. For example: Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Ballet=dance Cartoon=pasteboard Champagne=bubbly wine Cohesion=unity Dentist=doctor Patrol=a night watch of soldiers Publicity=make public Routine=way, path, course Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The 19th and 20th centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of the English vocabulary. 1.Especially the great development of science and technology is reflected in the English vocabulary. 2.The great changes in industry, in political and social lives, in sports and amusements all have contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 3. Since the Second World War the English vocabulary has been affected powerfully by social, political, economic, especially scientific and technical changes. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-8 Etymological Twins in English In the course of the development of the English vocabulary we may find that there are a few pairs of words which came from the same language source. At the beginning of the formation of words they were similar not only in form but also in meaning. As time went by their senses became divergent, especially today. According to the linguistic phenomenon we call these pairs of words etymological twins or etymological variants in English. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Human and humane (good, kind) Urban and urbane (courteous, elegant) german (having the same parents) and germane (relevant and appropriate) Forge (a furnace for melting) and fabric Frail (physically weak, easily broken, morally weak) and fragile (easily damaged, not strong and healthy) Hospital and hostel or hotel Aptitude and attitude Guard and ward Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-1-9 Some Combining Forms Used in Modern English A combining form is “ a linguistic form that occurs only in compounds or derivatives and can be distinguished from an affix (1) by its ability to occur as one immediate constituent (直接成分) of a form whose only other immediate constituent is an affix ( as cephal- in cephalic) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary (2) by its being derived from an independent word (as electro- representing electric in electromagnet or para- representing parachute in paratrooper) (3) or can be distinguished historically from an affix by the fact that it is borrowed from another language in which it is descriptively a word or a combining form ( as French mal giving English mal- in malodorous). Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) -meter is a combining form, meaning ‘device of measuring sth. by means of it to form a word Barometer (气压计) Hydrometer (液体比重计) Hygrometer (湿度计) Pedometer (计步器) Speedometer (测速器) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 6) Calorimeter (热量计) 7) Gravimeter (重力计) 8) Ammeter (安培计) 9) Voltmeter (电压计) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Radio- is combining form derived from the Latin word radius. Radiometer (辐射计) Radiotherapy (放射疗法) Radioisotope (放射性同位素) Radiology (放射学) Radiobroadcast Radiojournalism (广播新闻) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Psycho- is a combining form, borrowed from Greek, meaning ‘soul, mind’. Psychoanalysis Psychology Psychosurgery (神经外科学) Psychodrama (心理剧) Psychotherapy(心理疗法) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Iso- is a combining form, meaning ‘equal, alike’. It was borrowed from Greek iso-. 1) Isobar (等压线) 2) Isometric (等距的) 3) Isomorph (同态律) 4) Isosceles (等边、等腰) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Hydro- is a combining form, derived from Greek hydro. 1)Hydroelectric (水电) 2)Hydrology (水文学) 3)Hydrometeor (水文气象学) 4)Hydrophone (水下测声仪) 5)Hydroplane (水上飞机) 6) hydrotherapy (水疗法) 7)Hydrocarbon (碳水化合物) 8) Hydrochloric (氯化氢) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary -Athon or –thon is a modern combing form abstracted from the word marathon, meaning ‘ any prolong or extended activity, event, etc. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) walkathon talkathon telethon bikeathon singathon workathon discothon Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary -Logy is a combining form, borrowed through French –logie or Latin –logia, and directly from Greek. 1) biology 2) ecology 3) meteorology (气象学) 4) eulogy (赞美) 5) tautology (同义反复) 6) anthology (文学、艺术集) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Hygro-, a combining form, was borrowed from Greek hygro-, meaning ‘wet, moist, moisture’. 1) hygrograph (湿度计) 2) hygrology (湿度学) 3) hygrometer (湿度表) 4) hygroscopic (测湿器) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Hypno-, a combining form, was borrowed from Greek hypno-, meaning ‘sleep’. 1) hypnosis (催眠) 2) hypnotherapy (催眠疗法) 3) hypnotism (催眠术) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Micro- is a combining form used chiefly to form scientific terms, borrowed from Greek , mikro-, meaning ‘small’. 1) microdot (微型相片) 2) microenterprise (小企业) 3) microprocessor (微型处理器) 4) microsatellite (基因的基本成分) 5) microstate (袖珍国家) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Macro- is a combing form borrowed through Middle French, Old English, Latin and Greek macro, meaning ‘large, long’. 1) macrobiotics (长寿食谱) 2) macroeconomics (宏观经济学) 3) macronutrient (大量营养元素) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Magneto- is a combing form borrowed from Latin magnes, meaning ‘loadstone, magnet’. 1) magneto (磁电机) 2) magnetoelectric (电磁) 3) magnetograph (磁强计录仪) 4)magnetometer (磁强计) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Petro- is a combing form borrowed from Greek petro-. 1) petrology (岩石学) 2) petrochemical (石化) 3) petrodollar (石油货币) 4) petropower (石油强权) 5)petropolitics (石油政治) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-2-1 Words of Native Origin The English vocabulary can be divided into two great groups according to its origin: native words and borrowed words. Characteristics of native words: 1) the foundation and core of the English vocabulary; 2) monosyllabic words (单音节词) in structure; 3) expressing the fundamental concepts in meaning; 4) including most parts of speech (词性) in grammar. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Three characteristics of native words 1) Polysemic character of native words in English Native words are polysemic words, that is, they have many meanings. For example: power, multiply, bank, etc. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2) Collocability (搭配能力)of native words in English An eye for an eye---a punishment which hurts the criminal in the same way as he hurt someone else Have an eye for---to have the ability to say To do someone in the eye---to trick someone To catch someone’s eye---to be noticed; to draw someone’s attention to oneself In the eye (s) of the law---according to the law Mind your eye---Look out! Be careful! To see eye to eye with---to agree completely Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary A good/great hand (行家) With clean hands (清清白白) At first hand (直接地,第一手) Hand in hand (手拉手) To show one’s hand (亮牌) To play into sb’s hands (授人以柄) In the hands of… (受控于……) A fresh/green hand (新手) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 3) Word-forming ability of native words in Modern English Native words in Modern English can form many derivatives and compounds. Derivatives : water → watery → waterless seven → seventh →seventeen… Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Compounds : waterfall waterline waterfront (岸线) waterproof water-ski waterlocks (环水) waterhead waterman water-sick (受涝的) waterside waterway waterskin (水袋) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Compounds : Question: What is the Chinese meaning for each of the following compound? 1) loudspeaker 2) lookers-on 3) greybeard 4) mousemat 5) forgery ring Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-2-2 Borrowed Words in the English Vocabulary Latin, Greek and French are the three languages that have contributed most to the English language. Other foreign languages that have contributed words are of far less importance. 1. Causes and means of borrowings into English There are two causes of borrowings into English: historical and social. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Historical cause Historically, (1) English shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures; (2) more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin. Some of these borrowings have been direct, but a great many came through French, some through other Romance languages, such as Italian, Spanish and Portuguese (the Latin family). Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary (3) The influence of foreign languages on the English language has been the result of the succession of invaders who came into contact with the English people during the Middle Ages; (4) Invasions and trade by the English themselves have carried English to most parts of the world, and at the same time brought many words from foreign languages into English. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Social cause Socially, as the world develops so does the English language. Especially in the 20th century, owing to the rapid development of the modern mass media, the international and cultural exchange and information, a great number of borrowed words have come into English. They have become a component of the English vocabulary to satisfy needs of society. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Means of borrowings They have come through conquest, commerce, travel, literature, mass media, i.e. newspaper, radio broadcast, television and many other ways. Loan-words have come into English through: spoken words written words Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2.Four groups of loan-words: 1) Aliens (异化词) 2) Denizens (外来词) 3) Translation-loans (翻译外来词) 4) Semantic borrowings (语义外来词) Foreign borrowings can be divided into four groups according to their character: Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Aliens (异化词) Aliens are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. They are usually considered as foreign words. For example: automobile coup de main=sudden attack elite trou-de-loup=trap Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Denizens (外来词) Denizens are words taken from a foreign language with a transformation of the foreign sound and spelling into native forms. They are not foreign words, but have been naturalized into native sound and spelling. For example: egg get give skill skin sky take Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Hybrids (混合词) are also denizens, because they are words made up of two parts, each from a different language. For example: sociology: a French element socio + a Greek element –logy hydroplane: a Greek element hydro + a Latin element plane Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Translation-loans (翻译外来词) Sometimes English compounds are borrowed from other languages, but their components are translated into English. These are called loantranslations or translation-loans. The following examples are words borrowed from French by means of translation. black humor (humour noir) auteur theory (politique auteurs, 导演创作论) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Semantic borrowings (语义外来词) Words which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of other languages are called semantic borrowings. The Old English word gift meant ‘the price of a wife,’ while the Scandinavian word gipt meant ‘gift, present.’ The word has acquired a new meaning under the influence of the Scandinavian language. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary In China, the word modernization is used in the phrase ‘four modernizations.’(四化) . One divides into two (一分为二) Shock brigade (突击队) Shock worker (突击队员) Postliberation (解放后) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The word represent is used in the phrase ‘Three Represents’ (三个代表)(representing the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces; representing the orientation of China’s advanced culture; and representing the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people). Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-1 The Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary 1)The Scandinavian element; 2)The French element; 3)The Latin element; 4)The Greek element; 5)Other foreign elements. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-2 The Scandinavian Element in the English Vocabulary Towards the close of the 8th century, the Danes appeared in England, first as raiders, then as conquerors and settlers. At that time the country was divided, the northern half being ruled by the Danes; the southern half by the Anglo-Saxons. The language spoken by the Danes was similar to the language of England. For example: Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Words like come, father, grass, house, lend, man, mother, ride, see, summer, think, town, tree, wife, will, winter and many others were common to both languages. Though the words were similar, the endings were different. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary An interesting feature of the language is a number of Danish forms existing side by side with the English forms in the English vocabulary. For example: English blossom drop from no rear shirt sit Danish bloom drip fro nay raise skirt seat Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary It should be noted that most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the colloquial language. These words have become the common core of the English vocabulary. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-3 The French Element in the English Vocabulary 1. 1066 Norman Conquest 2.Bilingual country 1)Norman-French 2)Parisian French Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The Norman conquerors became masters of the country for a long time left a deep influence upon the English language All the important places in the government, at the courts and in the churches were filled by Frenchspeaking supporters of the conquerors These conditions brought about by the Norman Conquest opened the door for a great influx of French words. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The upper classes of England spoke French and the common people in England spoke English. Therefore England became a bilingual country at that time. By the end of 13th century Parisian French began to enter England, and more still in the 15th century. Many French words appeared in the works of Chaucer and other English writers, thus exerting a great influence on the English language. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 1) French loan-words in the Middle English period Words connected with government: administration assembly authority government council court parliament empire crown majesty realm state oppress tyrant reign Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2) Words connected with religions clerk clergy dean devotion faith lesson saint baptism confess divine virgin theology trinity passion prayer religion Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 3) words connected with law arrest blame crime condemn proof seize jury judgment pledge justice judge evidence equity plaintiff prison defendant attorney sentence punishment Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 4) words connected with army arms army enemy peace guard spy navy battle retreat soldier combat sergeant defense captain conqueror Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 5) words connected with fashion and food bacon beef biscuit boots button cloak collar cream dress lemon mutton diamond pork sugar coat orange gown robe dinner embroidery fur garment Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 6) words connected with arts, literature art beauty color figure poet image paper learning prose story study painting title tone chapter preface pen tragedy The loan-words from French are commonly used and constitute an important part of the English vocabulary. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary French loan-words after the Middle English period French loan-words continued to enrich the English vocabulary after the Middle English period, especially in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The words are connected chiefly with arts, food and drink, fashion and diplomacy. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 1) words connected with arts baroque (巴洛克,17世纪建筑风格) baton (警棍) matinee (日场) nocturne (夜场) repertoire (演出节目) renaissance resume Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2) words connected with food and drink bonbon (棒棒糖) café chef (大厨师) menu restaurant saute=fry Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 3) Words connected with fashion, dress and materials beret (贝雷帽) blouse (宽松的女短袖) corsage (胸衣) crochet (钩针织品) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 4) words connected with diplomatic terms a charge d’affaires ad interim (临时代办) attache (大使、公使随员) communism entente (协议) laisser faire (不干涉主义) secretariat (秘书处) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary High Frequency Vocabulary 5000 Native French Latin others Top1000 83% 11% 2% 4% Top2000 34% 46% 11% 9% Top3000 29% 46% 14% 11% Top4000 27% 45% 17% 11% Top5000 27% 47% 17^ 9% Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-4 The Latin Element in the English Vocabulary Classical Elements: Latin & Greek Five Latin Influences: five periods 1) zero : domestic life 2) first : Celtic (凯尔特人) transmission 3) second: 597 Christianity 4) third : Norman conquest 5) fourth : Renaissance Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The zero period of Latin influence The first Latin words to find their way into the English language owe their adoption to the early contact between the Romans and the Germanic tribes on the continent. To this period the English vocabulary owes a number of Latin words to domestic life. For example: wine butter cheese spoon cup kettle table dish mustard onion costermonger(水果商) fishmonger(鱼贩子) ironmonger(五金商人) warmonger(战争贩子) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The first period of Latin influence There was no opportunity for direct contact between Latin and Old English in England, so many Latin words came in through Celtic transmission (). The Celtic word cester, for instance, which represents the Latin word castra (camp), forms a familiar element in English placenames such as: Chester, Dorchester, Glouchester, Lancaster, Manchester, Winchester, Worchester. mountain harbor village Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The second period of Latin influence The greatest influence of Latin upon Old English was occasioned by the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. During the period from 597 to the end of the Old English period (over 5 hundred years) Latin words had been making their way gradually into English language. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The church’s influence: altar angel candle martyr mass offer nun rule temple discipline organ hymn pope priest disciple minister (教长、牧 师) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The third period of Latin influence The influence of the Norman Conquest is generally known as the third period of the Latin influence. This period was especially prolific in Latin borrowings. A list of examples for direct borrowings from Latin is given below: Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary abject allegory gesture history index individual legal minor nervous picture prevent private quiet script subdivide suppress contempt include infinite moderate polite project scripture testify genius incredible interrupt necessary popular promote solitary subordinate Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The fourth period of Latin influence The influence of the Renaissance on English was great and far-reaching in this period. The Latin words that were introduced at this time were often basic words—nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Noun: allurement allusion autograph emanation(闪光点) quantum vacuum recipe tractor Adjective: appropriate expensive external insane Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Verb: adopt consolidate disregard emancipate exert exist extinguish Latin abbreviations: a.m. (ante meridiem)=before noon cf. (confer)=compare e.g. (exempli gratia)=for example etc. (et cetera)=and so on i.e. (id est)=that is to say p.m. (post meridiem)=afternoon pct. (per centum)=per cent viz. (videlicet)=that is to say, in other words v.v. (vice versa)=the other way round Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-5 The Greek Element in the English Vocabulary Time: Renaissance Medium: Latin , French Words relating to literature , linguistics, natural science , social sciences , medicine Many English words are based on Greek roots in Modern English. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The influx of Greek words into English began at the time of the Renaissance. Many Greek borrowings came in chiefly through the medium of Latin or French. 1) words relating to literature antithesis comedy drama rhetoric thesis tragedy Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2) words relating to linguistics diachrony grammar lexicon lexicology synchrony syntax lexis morphology phonology semantics 3) words relating to natural sciences biology dynamics electric mathematics mechanics physics Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 4) words relating to social sciences basis ethics theory category economics philosophy 5) words relating to medicine enteritis (肠炎) gastrectomy (胃切除) hepatitis (肝炎) osteitis (骨炎) hypertension (高血压) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary There are many English words based on Greek roots in Modern English. bio (life)—biochemistry, biology gam (marriage)—bigamy, monogamy, polygamy gen (to produce)—genesis, genius genuine anthrop (human)—anthropology auto (self)—autocrat, automobile, autograph geo (earth)—geography, geology, geometry Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary tele (at a distance)—telelecture(电话讲课), telenewspaper(传真报纸), telesat(远程通讯卫星), teleset(电视接收机), telescope phone (voice)—phone-in(电话抗议), phonerecord(唱片) photo (light)—photobiologist, photochemical, photobotany Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-6 The Influence of the Classical Elements upon the English Vocabulary Main source of scientific and technical vocabulary Influence: 1)The preciseness of meaning 2)The richness 3)The cosmopolitan character Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The influence of the classical elements upon English, especially upon Modern English is very great. Many scientific and technical words in the English vocabulary come from the Latin and Greek elements, which are the main source of scientific vocabulary in English. The characteristics of the classical elements are as follows: Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The preciseness of meaning Scientific description emphasizes preciseness of meaning of words. The Latin and Greek elements embody this advantage. E.g. 1) Futurology meteorology radiobiology 2) Astronomy economy radiothermy (热放电疗法) 3) Astrophysics (天文物理学) astronautics (宇宙航行学) radioacoustics(无线电声学) linguistics stylistics Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The richness of the classical elements in the English vocabulary The root vit comes from a Latin noun, meaning ‘life’ and a Latin verb viv meaning to ‘live.’ verb: revive adjective: vital vivacious=lively vivid viviparous (胎生的) noun: vitamin Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary The cosmopolitan/universal character The vast majority of scientific and technical words in English have the same meaning and spelling as words in other languages of the Indo-European family. We call these words cosmopolitan ones because the total number of speakers of all IndoEuropean languages amounts to approximately half of the population of the world. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary English atom method micron neuron proton radio French atome methode micron neutron protone radio German Atom Methode Mikron (微米) Neutron (中子) Pronton (质子) Radio Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-7 Other Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary English has borrowed words from more than fifty languages in the course of its historical development. 1.Words borrowed from Italian Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary (1)words concerning architecture: balcony (阳台) cameo (浮雕) corridor (走廊) cupola (圆顶) (2)commonly-used words: carat (克拉) charlatan (庸医) gala (节日) (3)military terms: baston (座盘) brigade (队) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2. Spanish and Portuguese: (1)plants: apricot banana maize potato yam (甘薯) (2)boats: armada (舰队) canoe (独木舟) (3)persons: desperado (暴徒) Negro muchacha (姑娘) (4)articles: hammock (吊床) (5)insects: mosquito (蚊子) Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-8 The Interrelation between the Native and Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary Loan-words---70% Native words---30%, which form the basic stock of Modern English vocabulary and are used in everyday speech and writing more frequently than borrowed words. Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary Latin or Greek roots, prefixes or suffixes have changed the structures of English words. A number of hybrids are typical examples: Latin root duc-/duct- (‘to lead’): conduct deduce induce introduce produce reduce seduce traduce (诽谤) Greek prefixes anti- (‘against): antiaircraft antihero antiparticle antipollution antismog Chapter 2 Sources of English Vocabulary 2-3-9 The linguistic and Historical Origins of Some Common English Words Every word in English has its story. In this section some common English words are selected to describe their origins and developments in the history of the English language. this section is for self-study. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-1-1 Some general remarks on semantics and meaning Question 1 : What is semantics? Question 2 : What is to be understood by meaning? Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Answer 1: Semantics is a major branch of linguistics devoted to the study of meaning. Semantics can be divided into : 1) historical semantics; 2) structural semantics (结构语义 学); 3) behavioral semantics. (行为语义学) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Question 2: Meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and sense. Semantics refers not only to word meaning but also to sentence meaning. Many linguists have been primarily concerned with sentence meaning and its relation to word meaning. According to Palmer, a semantic theory must explain such sentences as: 1) His typewriter has bad intentions. (anomaly) 2) My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. (Contradiction) 3) John was looking for the glasses. (ambiguity) 4) (a) The needle is too short. (synonymy) (b) The needle is not long enough. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 5) (a) Many of the students were unable to answer your question. (b) Only a few students grasped your question. In (5) the meaning of one sentence follows from the other. 6) (a) How long did Archibald remain in Monte Carlo? (b) Archibald remained in Monte Carlo for some time. In (6) the first sentence implies the second one. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-1-2 The Relationship Between Meaning and the Object The sign theory (符号理论) of de Saussure Linguistic sign consists of a signifier (能指) and a signified (所指), that is, a sound image (声 音形象) and a concept. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The semiotic triangle (语义三角) According to Ogden and Richards, the symbol is the linguistic element, that is, the word, sentence, etc. and the referent (指称对象) is the object, etc. in the world of experience, while thought or reference is concept. The sign theory and the semiotic triangle (the traditional semantics) are useful to help us understand meaning and semantic relations. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations thought or Reference (Concept) “母牛” Symbol Referent (Object) (Word, sentence) 实物 (母牛) “cow” As mentioned above, whenever we have a word, there will be a concept, from which the meaning of a word is derived. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-2-1 What is a word? According to contemporary linguistic theory: A word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. The smallest significant unit of speech is not the word, but the morpheme (词素). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Two types of linguistic forms: A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. The various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Every word has a fixed sound form and a certain meaning. In other words, a word has two aspects: the external aspect , that is sound , the internal aspect , that is , meaning. the external aspect = sound the internal aspect = meaning Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The relation between the meaning of a word and its sound is arbitrary (任意的) or conventional (约定俗成). The majority of the words in the vocabulary of any language are conventional symbols (约定俗 成的符号). It is not possible to explain why this or that word has this or that sound, or why this or that word has this or that meaning. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-2-2 Meaning and motivation (理据) Question: What is motivation? Answer : Motivation is the relationship between the structure of a word and its meaning. Three motivations of word-structure in terms of meaning: 1) phonetic motivation (语音理据); 2) grammatical motivation (语法理据); 3) semantic motivation or motivation by meaning (语义理据). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) Phonetic motivation The formation or use of words that were coined in imitation of the sounds associated with the things named are called echo-words (仿声词). cuckoo - a bird whose call is like its name coo – the low soft cry of a dove Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations mew – the sound made by a cat ding-dong – the sound of two bells striking alternately more examples: roar of a lion cluck of a hen hiss of a snake croak of a frog Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2) Grammatical motivation Words which were formed by means of grammatical structure belong to the category of motivation by grammar. (1) derivation mother + land =motherland teach + er (suffix) = teacher Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) compound shuttle diplomacy motherland return ticket shoemaker mobile home Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3) Motivation by meaning/Semantic motivation Words which may be explained by the motivation of meaning belong to the category of semantic motivation. For example: bottleneck the brow of a hill a rain of bullets the teeth of a saw a sea of troubles blooming health Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations “bottleneck” , the original meaning is the neck of a bottle . Later we use the word to express a narrow strip of road . Now the word also had another sense , that is , that part of a manufacturing process , where production is slowed down . Here the figurative sense of the word “bottleneck” is an obstruction in the case of traffic or production which resembles the obstruction of the neck of a bottle. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-3-1 Classifications of Word 1. According to the lexical meaning and grammatical function of word: There are two kinds of words classified according to their lexical meaning and grammatical function: full words (实词) and form-words (虚词). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs---- full words or notional words (概念词), which function as independent members in sentences. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, pronominal adverbs----form-words or functional words (功能词), which have no independent meaning proper, which are ‘synsemantic’(辅助意义). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2. According to the usage of words: There are two great classes of words classified according to their usage:popular words (通俗词) and learned words (学术词). (1) Popular words are words usually used in ordinary conversation. They are concerned with common things of life, and are a part of everyday vocabulary. So it is obvious that popular words belong to the people as a whole. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) Learned words are words comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation but are used in books. The meanings of learned words are known to every educated person, but there is little opportunity to use them at home. That is to say, learned words come from books we read, not from people’s lips. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The difference between popular and learned words may be easily seen in a few example: A lively girl/ a vivacious girl In English it will usually be found that most learned are words of foreign origin derived from French or Latin. Some of them came from Greek. However, it should be mentioned here that some popular words are also of foreign origin. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations From French: army arrest city engine hour map move manner river pen table mountain soldier second village From Latin: act animal anxious congress equal various dentist describe medicine graduate suggest From Greek: crisis dialogue biography photograph chemist telegraph zoology Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations So the true distinction between a learned word and a popular word depends not upon etymology, but upon usage, that is, current use, although the sources of words are an important factor in distinguishing a learned word or a popular one. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3. According to the character of words: Words can be divided into two kinds according to their character: abstract words and concrete words. (1)Abstract words are those which refer to states, events, feelings, etc.. For example: difficulty, meeting, talk, thought, work, etc. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) concrete words are those which are concerned with objects, things, etc. beer, car, milk, oil 4. according to motivation: Words can be divided into transparent (显性) or motivated words and opaque (隐性) or nonmotivated words according to motivation. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations How the majority of words were formed cannot be explained. These words are called opaque words, such as axe, book, table, work, etc. Only a minority of words can be explained. They are transparent words whose meaning is determined from the meaning of their components. Many echo-words and compound words are transparent ones. For example: Cuckoo, ping-pong, motherland, blackbird, etc. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 5. According to polysemy and monosemy: Words can be divided into polysemic and monosemic words according to polysemy and monosemy. A polysemic word has a range of differering meanings while a monosemic word consists of a single meaning. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 6.According to the origin: Words can be divided into native words and loan-words according to their origin. Native words are Anglo-Saxon words still retained in Modern English, whereas loan-words are words taken from different foreign languages. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-3-2 Main Types of Word Meaning 1. Grammatical meaning: Grammatical meaning is the component of meaning identical in individual forms of different words. 1) Tense meaning: worked studied thought 2) Case meaning: boy’s word’s 3) Plural meaning: girl-girls child-children Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2. Lexical meaning (词汇意义): Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. The word-forms ‘go, goes, went, gone, going’ possesses different grammatical meanings of tenses, persons and so on. In each of these forms we find the same lexical meaning—the process of movement. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3. Contextual meaning (语境意义): The context generally shows in what sense the word is used, in its primary sense or its figurative sense. When used literally, words have their original meaning; when used figuratively, words have symbolic meaning (象征意义). The meaning of the word is defined by the context. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) The word country, for instance, may mean: Some of the country are warmer than others. After many years abroad he wanted to return to his country. The country is opposed to war. What does a farming country mean? We’re hoping to go for a day in the country if the weather’s fine tomorrow. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 4.Denotative meaning (外延意义): Denotative meaning is the same meaning for all speakers of a given language. That is to say, it is the extensional meaning of a word. book, water, chemical, etc. So denotative meaning is called the dictionary meaning. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 5. Connotative meaning (内涵意义): Connotative meaning is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. It includes the stylistic reference and the emotive charge proper to the word (full of emotion). For example: 1) home—a place of warmth, comfort and affection; 2) Mother—love, care and tenderness. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 6. Stylistic meaning (文体意义): Stylistic meaning is “that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.” Three kinds of words (common words, formal words and informal words) are used on different occasions. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (1) Common words (普通词) Words used on any occasion are called common words. These words stylistically express a neutral meaning. Common words are the core of the English vocabulary and can be used on both formal and informal occasions. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) Formal words: Learned words are formal words. These words are usually used in books, newspapers, documents and serious speeches. Many of these words are derived from Latin or Greek. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (3)Informal words: A)Colloquialisms are used in ordinary, familiar, or informal conversation. For example: Brolly=umbrella nippy=nimble Tell off=to scold do for=to keep house Run in=to catch make up with to kill bike=bicycle phone=telephone Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations B) Slang is a kind of language that is not acceptable in serious speech or writing. It is regarded as informal or impolite and is used among particular groups of people. For example: bread (AmE)=money dough (AmE)=money lolly (BrE)=money buck=an American dollar chichen feed=a small unimportant amount of money) Peanut (AmE)=a sum of money so small that it is not worth considering Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations C) Vulgarisms (粗俗语) are words not usually used by educated person. For example: It’s a bloody shame. (bloody=showing a strong feeling); gent=a vulgar abbreviation of gentleman D) Jargon (术语) is a kind of language that is hard to understand because it is full of special words known only to the people of a certain group. TESL; TOEFL Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations E) Argot (暗语) is a kind of speech spoken and understood by a small class of people, especial thieves. can-opener=all-purpose or universal key; dip=pickpocket Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-3-3 Word Meaning and Context (语境) Word meaning depends on context. Different contexts give words different meanings. Two types of context: linguistic context and nonlinguistic context. Question: How do you understand each context mentioned above? Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Answer: 1) Linguistic context refers to lexical and grammatical context. That is to say, the context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings, including lexical and grammatical meaning, is attached to the word. 2) nonlinguistic context refers to context of situation, culture and style. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Context of situation This term , formulated by Firth, a famous linguist, refers to “the whole set of external world features considered to be relevant in the analysis of an utterance (话语) at different levels.” In other words, context of situation refers to stating the meanings of a word in terms of the speech situation in which the word is used. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations For instance, there is a phatica communion (寒暄语) in English which is used to establish common thought and feeling. In this phatic communion the words do not express meaning but a purely social action because of the speech situation. “How are you?” “How do you do?” “Good morning!” are typical examples. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-4-1 synonyms Synonyms are traditionally defined as words different in sound and spelling but identical or similar in meaning. In fact, there are no two words in English that are interchangeable in all contexts. For example: head=leader, ruler, headmaster head=ability or talent (He has a good head for mathematics) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations It is obvious that words are synonymous or similar in meaning only in a certain sense, not in all their meanings. Therefore, the term synonym can be defined as follows: The term synonym is used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense-relation between lexical items (词项). The lexical items which have the same meanings are synonyms. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The source of synonyms English is rich in synonyms, this is because the English language has grown over many centuries by incorporating words from other languages. Three sources of synonyms in English: 1) Words borrowed from Latin, Greek and Scandinavian before the Norman Conquest in 1066; Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2) Words enriched by the addition of French words after the Norman Conquest; 3) Nowadays British English exists side by side with American English. There are countless paired synonyms where a native word is opposed to one borrowed from Latin, Greek or French. These words are called doublets (成对同义词). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations English answer brotherly buy heavenly help inner sharp bodily Latin reply fraternal purchase celestial aid internal acute corporate heartily house cordial mansion English deed might dale foe meed violin Latin action power valley enemy reward fiddle formal or informal? Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Another type of synonyms (triplets) English French Latin or Greek ask question interrogate end finish conclude fire flame conflagration fear terror trepidation goodness virtue probity holy sacred consecrated Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Another type of synonyms (triplets) English French Latin or Greek rise mount ascend time age epoch kingly royal regal belly stomach abdomen fast firm secure wise sage sapient Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) 2) 3) The characteristics of the words of the above three columns: The native word is the simplest and most ordinary of the three terms; The Latin or Greek word is learned; The French word stands between the native word and the Latin or Greek word. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations British American Call box telephone tooth Coach bus Chemist druggist Lift elevator Garage service station Petro gasoline Railway railroad British Pavement Servant Car park Tube American sidewalk help parking lot subway Hire purchase installment plan Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Absolute synonyms and relative synonyms Absolute synonyms are words which are fully identical in meaning. There are a few absolute synonyms in English. These synonyms may be found in scientific terms. For example: scarlet fever=scarlatina (腥血热) caecitis =typhlitis (盲肠炎) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations In ordinary English few words are absolute synonyms. fatherland=motherland=mother country mother tongue=native language Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations English has many relative synonyms, which differ from absolute synonyms in the following respects: 1) In the shade of meaning (意义的细微差别) (1) escape flee(在紧急情况下) (2) amaze (难以相信) astound (程度高) (3) anger—rage—fury (4) decline—refuse—reject Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2) In stylistic meaning (文体意义) (1) man (neutral) chap (colloquial) fellow (colloquial) bird (colloquial) guy (slang) bozo (slang) gent (vulgar) (2) die (neutral) pass away (euphemistic) kick the bucket (slang) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3) In emotive meaning (情感意义) (1) negro (a neutral word in a somewhat derogatory sense) nigger (a derogatory term used in an impolite way) black (a commendatory term often used in a good sense) (2) small—little (3) intellectual—egghead (derogatory, 知识分子) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 4) In range of use (使用范围) The words about and on meaning ‘with regard to’ or ‘concerning’ are relative synonyms. On is used to suggest that a book, article, lecture, etc. is serious or academic, suitable for specialists. About is used when information is given more general. For example: A textbook on Indian history A book for children about Indian and its people A lecture on classical physics A conversation about study skills Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 5) In collocation (搭配) (1) Rancid (not fresh) bacon or butter addled (not fresh) eggs or brains (2) A flock of sheep A herd of cows A school of whales A pride of lions Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 6) In British and American usages British English American English autumn fall ill/sick (形容词) sick Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-4-2 antonyms Antonyms are traditionally described as words opposite in meaning. A new definition of antonyms: Antonyms are really synonyms—of a special kind. The basic property of the two words which are antonyms is that they share all semantic properties but one. The property they do not share is present in one word and absent in the other. Thus, in order to be opposite, two words must be semantically very similar. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The two words in each antonymic pair differ in only one aspect. They have a lot of semantic properties in common. For example: long—short (length) young—old (age) big—small (size) high—low (height) Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Types of antonyms There are two types of antonyms according to morphology and semantics: 1.Morphological classification (形态分类): 1) Root antonyms (词根反义词) clear—vague large—small up—down love—hate deep—shallow Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2) derivative antonyms (派生反义词) pleasant—unpleasant happy—unhappy polite—impolite loyal—disloyal formal—informal harmful—harmless legitimate—illegitimate honest—dishonest prewar—postwar useful--useless Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2. Semantic classification (语义分类) 1)contraries (相对反义词) big—little happy—sad wide—narrow old—young rich—poor heavy—light The first feature of contraries is that the semantic polarity is relative; the other feature is gradualness. That is to say, we can put words in different degrees between contraries. For example: Beautiful—pretty—good-looking—plain—ugly Love—attachment—liking—indifference—antipathy--hate Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2) complementaries (互补反义词) Complementaries denote that the denial of one of the items means the assertion of the other or vice versa. We can say that if John is not married, he is single. If John is not single, he is married. male—female dead—alive present—absent boy—girl brother—sister perfect--imperfect Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3) conversives (换位反义词) Conversives denotes not only the oppositeness of meaning, but also an interdependence of meaning. This kind of antonyms is always found in words concerning social and spatial relationships. Examples are: If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A. verb: Lend—borrow rent—let give—receive Noun: Husband—wife parent—child teacher—student preposition: Above—below in front of--behind Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Different antonyms of one word Words which have several meanings have different antonyms. For example: Fresh bread—stale bread Fresh air—foul air Fresh flower—faded flower Fresh meant—frozen meant Fresh newspaper—stale newspaper Fresh water—salt water Fresh color—faded color Fresh hand—old hand Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) gross (粗大的)—petty (细小的) gross (粗劣的)—delicate (优美的) 2) backward—forward backward—advanced 3) an old man—a young man an old house—a modern/new house 4) a thin slice—a thin slice a thin man—a fat man 5) a tall building—a low building a tall man—a short man Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Use of antonyms More haste, less speed. To save time is to lengthen life. Every tide hath (has) its ebb. Adversity leads to prosperity. The world is a ladder for some to go up and for other to go down. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 6) The wise man knows he knows nothing, the fool thinks he knows all. 7) Speech is silver, silence is gold. 8) Few words, many deeds. 9) He that is full of himself, is very empty. 10)East or west, home is best. 11)Like father, like son. 12)An old physician, and a young lawyer. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 13) “It was the best times, it was the worst times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us…” Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-4-3 Polysemy and Homonymy (同音/形异义) Polysemy is “ a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.” That is to say, the same word may have a set of different meanings. Polysemy gives rise to a great number of polysemic words which are products of senseshift in the course of the development of the vocabulary. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Two main processes of sense-shift (意义变化) 1. Radiation (词义的辐射) : Radiation is a term used to refer to a process of senseshift in which the original meaning of a word is to be considered as the central meaning and the other meanings are derived from it. The primary meaning of the word hand (a part of the human body beyond the wrist) is used as a central meaning. Other meanings are derived from it in every direction like rays. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) Part of the human body beyond the wrist: I had it in my right hand. 2) keeping, possession: The property is no longer in my hands. 3) Influence or agency: The hand of an enemy has been at work here. 4) Person or source from which something comes: She heard the news at first hand. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 5) skill: She has a light hand at Chinese food. 6) Person who does (what is indicated in the context): He is a new hand. 7) employee: The factory has taken on 200 extra hands. 8) turn, share in an activity: Let me have a hand now. 9) A thing like a hand, pointer on a watch, clock: the hour/minute/second hand Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 10) Side or direct: on every hand or on all hands=in all directions 11) handwritings: He writes a good hand. 12) signature: He set his hand to a document. 13) (card games) cards dealt to a player: You have a good hand. 14) (colloq) applause Give a performer a big hand. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2. Concatenation (词义的连锁联结): Concatenation is a term used to refer to another process of sense-shift in which the original meaning of a word may be lost on other meanings, that is to say, other meanings of a word produced are not connected with the primary sense. The word fond once meant ‘foolish’ in Old English. It was then specialized to ‘foolish or doting affection’ (溺爱), but now it means ‘loving in a kind, gentle or tender way. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The definition of homonymy and homonyms: Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form, but differ in meaning. Concretely speaking, homonyms are words different in meaning, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations The classification of homonyms: Two main kinds of homonyms: Perfect homonyms: 1. Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and parts of speech, but different in meaning. (1) Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning. angle—the space between two lines or surfaces that meet or cross each other. angle—to fish with a hook and line Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Base—low, dishonest Base—the bottom of something last—following all the rest last—to go on, to continue last—a piece of wood or metal shaped like a human foot, used by shoemakers and shoe repairers Light—the natural force that is produced from objects and other things, so that we see Light—of little weight Light—to come down from flight and settle Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Pop—modern popular music Pop—to make a short, sharp explosive sound Pop—father (American slang) Sound—in good condition Sound—what is or may be heard Sound—to measure the depth of Sound—a fairly broad stretch of sea water mostly surrounded by coast Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) Words identical in both sound-form and parts of speech, but different in meaning: Ball—a round object used in play Ball—a large formal occasion for social dancing Date—the number of the day, the month, and the year Date—a small brown sweet fruit with a long stone Yard—an enclosed area next to a building Yard—a measure of length that is a little less than a meter Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Bank—a place in which money is kept or paid out on demand Bank—land along the side of a river, lake, etc Bank—a row, especially of oars in an ancient boat or keys on a typewriter Pile—a tidy heap Pile—a heavy wooden, metal, or stone-like post Pile—the soft surface of short threads on some cloths and floor coverings Pile—a single hemorrhoid Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 2. Partial homonyms: Partial homonyms are words different in meaning, but identical in spelling or sound. (1) Homographs (同形异义)—words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning. Close —near Close—to shut Sow—to plant or scatter seeds Sow—a fully grown female pig Lead—to show someone the way Lead—a soft heavy easily melted metal Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Shower—one who shows Shower—a fall of rain of short duration Wind—strong moving air Wind—to turn round and round Entrance—a gate, door or other openings by which one enters Entrance—to fill someone with great wonder and delight Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) Homophones (同音异义)—words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Son—a male child Sun—a burning star which it receives light and heat Eye—the organ of sight I—used by speaker to refer to himself Dear—much loved Deer—any of several types of rather large fast four-footed animal Flower—the part of a plant, often beautiful and colored Flour—powder made from grains especially wheat Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (3) Homoforms (同形词)—words quite different in meaning but identical in some of their grammatical forms. Found—the past tense and the past participle Found—to establish Provided—the past tense and the past participle Provided—if and only if, on condition that Concerning—the present participle Concerning—about, with regard to Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (1) Three ways of forming homonyms: Converging sound-development (音变的汇合) Converging sound-development is commonest cause of the formation of homonyms. These homonyms came from different origins in the early part of the development of the language. They sounded different. Then they became words identical in sound but different in meaning. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Race—a competition in speed (from Old Norse) Race—one of the member of divisions of human beings (from Italian) Race—root (of ginger) (from Old French) Meat—animal flesh as food (from Old English) Meet—to come together with (Old English) Heal/heel/ steal/steel Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (2) Diverging sense-development (词义变化分化): If two or more meanings of the same word drift apart in the course of the development of the English vocabulary, we may say that one word has split into two, that is, homonymy happens because there is no connection between them. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations Historically, the word pupil (a person, especially a child who is being taught) and the pupil of the eye are from the same origin. In the language of today they are unrelated in meaning, that is, homonyms. So are the sole of a shoe (the bottom of a shoe) and the fish sole (the name of a fish). Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (3) foreign influence: Foreign influence is a special form of converging sounddevelopment. Mail—the postal system directed and worked by the government (from Od French ‘male’ Male—of the sex that does not give birth to young (from Old Frencg ‘ma(s)le’ Straight—in a straight line (from Middle English ‘stregt’ Strait—narrow (from Old French ‘estreit’ Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations (4) Shortening of words (词义的缩略): Homonyms may also be created by the wordformation process of clipping (shortening). This source is of secondary importance in formal writing but has widespread influence in everyday speech. E.g. Pop—popular Rock—rock’n’rooll Disc—discoteque Pop—to thrust or push Rock—stone Disc—round plate Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-4-4 Hyponymy Hyponymy is the relationship of inclusion. Inclusion is a matter of class membership. Hyponymy includes the upper term (上义词) and the lower term (下义词) . The upper term is called the super-ordinate while the lower term is called the hyponym. Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 1) Superordinate—animal Hyponyms—dog, cat,… 2) superordinate—tool Hyponyms—hammer, axe, saw, screw,… 3) Superordinate—sheep Hyponyms—ewe, lamb Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations 3-4-5 a list of Synonyms and Antonyms This section is for self-study. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-1-1 The Constant Change in Language and the Continuous Appearance of Neologisms All living languages in the world are constantly changing. The changes can be seen in the vocabulary, that is, in neologisms. Now neologisms are commonly called new words. Changes in pronunciation and grammar are much slower than changes in vocabulary. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary In the English vocabulary there are three types of words according to their appearance and disappearance: Old words die out, new words are born, and existing words add new sense. Completely new words coinages are few, existing words adding new meanings are many. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-1-2 The Definition of Neologisms or New Words 1) A new word is novel arrangement of letters with s meaning not quit duplicated by any other arrangement of letters. This is the ideal form of a new word. (The Oxford Essential Dictionary of New Words) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2) A new word should have been in consistent use for at least ten years before being entered into our dictionary, though the rapid adoption of some words (especially in technology and medicine) has led us to speed up the process in some cases. (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary When we define neologisms or new words, two aspects should be considered: A. What new words are. B. When they appear and enter into the dictionary. The criterion of time concerning the birth and use of new words is important. Within the given period of time the newly coined words and words adding new meanings are called new words. Beyond the period they will become existing words, not new words. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary From the above-mentioned aspects the definition of new words may be described as follows: Neologisms are newly coined words (also called vogue-words) or words that are given new meanings to fit new situations and new needs because of the social, economic, political, cultural, especially scientific and technical changes in the given period in human society. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-1-3 The Rate of Changes of the English Vocabulary The English vocabulary changes with the development of society (a fundamental linguistic law) The rate of vocabulary changes varies from age to age . In the 14 century: an influx of French words into English; In the 16 century :large numbers of words from Latin; In the 19 century :a great expansion of the vocabulary (science and technology) ; Today: one again a period of vocabulary expansion (science and technology, international exchange). Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-1-4 The Sources of New Words New words are being invented or introduced all the time. Sometimes a new word is produced by a single person only, in some special situation. These words are called nonce words (临时用词) used only once or coined for one particular occasion, and never occur again. Sometimes a new word is coined by a number of people, such a word becomes an accepted part of language, and is fixed in a dictionary. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Two main sources of new words: 1) The rapid development of modern science and techonlogy Modern science and technology bring about the addition of new words without numbers. They are the most importance source of new words. Modern science and technology contain many new branches apart from the existing fields, which gives rise to a great number of new words, such as: Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Biomimetics (1974, 生物拟态学) Biomineralization (1973) Biomedical engineering (1961) Bionics (1960, 仿生学) Ecophysiology (1962) Ecotoxicology (1977, 生态毒理学) Euphenics (1977, 人种改良运动) Generative semantics (1970) High-energy physics (1964) Information science (1960) Media studies (the 1980s) Ocean engineering (the 1960s) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Some of the areas that produce new words: (1)Computing Computing is a newly developing and widely used area in modern society. Every day people use computers to learn and know a lot of happenings in the world. So a great number of new words concerning computers appear constantly in Modern English. For example: Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Computerese (1960, 计算机语言) Computerist (1973) Computernik (1968, 计算机专家、爱好者) Computerphobe (1976, 计算机恐惧者) Cybercafe (1994) Cybercitizen (1994) Cyberspace (1982) Cybersurfer (1993) Cyberspeak (1991, jargon) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Download (1979) E-mail (1982) Extranet (1995, 外联网) Intranet (1993, 内联网) Floppy disk (1972) Floppy or floppies=floppy disk (1974) Generation D=digital generation Hyperlink (1988) Hypermedia (1965) Mouse Multimedia (1967) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Read-only memory (1961), ROM (1966) Search engine (1984) Spam (1994, 群发) Upload (1983) webcam( (1995, made up of web+camara) Webcast (1995, a transmission of sound and image via the World Wide Web) Webmaster (1994, a person responsible for the creation or maintenance of a web site) Web site (1992) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (2) Biology Bioactive (1965) Bioavailability (1971, 生物利用率) Biohebavioral (1970) Biochip (1981,生物芯片 ) Biocontainment (1985, 生物抑制) Biodiversity (1986) Bioremediation (1986) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Biomineralization (1973) Biopesticide (1980) Biopharmaceutical (1985) Bioprospect (1996, used as a verb to ‘search for substances produced by living organisms and having medical or commercial value) Bioregion (1978) Bioregionalism (1981) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (3) the deep space Space suit (1929) Astronaut (1929) Spacecraft (1930) Spaceflight (1931) Spaceport (1935) Space station (1936) Spaceman (1938) Space-age (1946) Space medicine (1949) Deep space (1952) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Heliosphere (1976, 日光层) Space walk (1965) Spacewalker (1969) Space shuttle (1969) Pulsar 1968, 脉冲星) Quasar (1964, 类星体) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (4) Medicine Aids (1982) Antidrug (1969) Birth control (1966) Cryonics (1967, ) Gene therapy Genetic fingerprinting (1984) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Immunodeficiency (1969, ) Mad cow disease (1988) Megavitamin (1974) Open-heart surgery (1960) SARS (2003) Gulf War syndrome (1992, fatigue, joint paint, memory loss, skin rash and headache) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2) Political, economic and social changes: (1) Political, economic and social changes are another important source of new words. International struggle: CF=Coalition Forces (stationed in Iraq); developing (1963); ecoterrorism (1987); ECU (1999)=European Currency Unit; EU=European Union; Euro (1981)=the common basic monetary unit of most countries of the European Union. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary First strike (1960, 先发制人) Global village (1960) Green revolution (1968) Interpol=Criminal Police Organization Nuclear winter (1983) Third world (1963) Third worlder (1963) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (2)Internal political struggle: In 1960 four black students of the Greenshore Agriculture and Technical College in North Carolina went to a Woolworth’s store for a cup of coffee. The waiter refused to serve them simply because they were black. When the students insisted on being served, they were taken away; hence grew up a series of protest words. Before 1960 we may find a number of protest words listed below: Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Live-in(1952)=living in one’s place of employment Sit-in (1937) =an act of occupying seats in a racially segregated establishment in organized protest against discrimination Sleep-in (1951)=living in the place of employment The following are new words created in the 60s and after the 60 last century. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Ableism (1981)=discrimination or prejudice against individuals with disability Freedom ride (1961)=a ride made by civil rights workers Lie-in (1963)=an act of lying down (as in a public place) in organized protest or as a means of forcing compliance with demands Peacenik (1965)=an opponent of war Teach-in (1965)=an extended meeting for lectures, debates, and discussions to raise awareness of or express a position on a social issue Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary After the appearance of missile gap, grew up other new words by analogy, such as: Credibility gap=lack of trust Culture gap=a difference between cultures Communications gap=a failure of understanding, usually because of lack of information, especially between different age groups, economic classes, political factions, or cultural groups Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (3) Women’s liberation businessperson (1974) Chairperson (1971) clergyperson (1976)=a member of the clergy Ecofeminism (1980)=a movement or theory that applies feminist principles and ideas to ecological issues lib (1970)=a movement seeking equal rights and status for women Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Libber (1971) Newspeople (1972)=reporters Newsperson (1973)=reporter Spokespeople (1972)=people serving as spokesman or spokeswoman Womanism (1984)=a form of feminism focused on the condition and concerns of black women Sexism (1968)=prejudice or discrimination based on sex, especially discrimination against women Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (4) Education: B school (1967)=a school of business within a university CAI=computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction ESL=English as a second language Grade inflation (1975)=a rise in the average grade assigned to students Homeschool(1980, verb)=to teach school subjects to one’s child at home Homeschooler (1981) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Open admission (1969)=enrollment on demand as a student in an institution of higher learning irrespective of formal qualifications Open class (the 1960s) TA=teaching assistant TESL=teaching English as a second language TESOL=teachers of English of other languages TOEFL=Test of English as a Foreign Language Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (5) Sports and entertainment: Autocross (1963)=automobile gymkhana Electronica (1994)=dance music Slimnastics (1967)=exercises designed to reduce one’s weight Spaghetti western (1969)=a western motion picture produced in Italy Sports medicine (1961) Kung fu (1966) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (6) communications aerotrain (the 1970s)=a propeller-driven vehicle that rides on a cushion of air astride a single rail Air-cushion vehicle (1962, ) Bullet train (1966)=a high-speed passenger train Cell phone (1984) Cellular (1987)=cell phone Video phone (1950)=picture phone (1956) E-book (1988) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary E-commerce (1993) E-text (the 1990s) Hypertext (1965)=a database format in which information related to that on a display can be accessed directly from the display; material (as text) in this format Information superhighway (1983) Teleconferencing (1979) Telemarketing (1980)=the marketing of goods or services by telephone Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (7) Changes in social and domestic habits: ATM (1976)=Automatic Teller Machine Big science (1961)=large-scale scientific research Databank (1966) Digital camera (1976) Digital versatile disc (1995)=DVD Disco (1979)=to dance to disco music Home page (1992) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (8) Pollution Before the 1960s appeared such words as: airpollution antipollution environmental pollution graffiti pollution visual pollution in the 1960s and 1970s: light pollution noise pollution thermal pollution Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-1-5 The formation of Neologisms New words are created in different ways: (1) By word-formation (2) By adding new meanings to existing words (3) By borrowing words from other languages (4)By analogy (5) By creating completely new coinages Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (1) By word-formation (see chapter 5) (2) By adding new meanings to existing words Existing words in English are often given new meanings to fit new situations. For example: Dove—any various types of pigeon or soft-voiced bird often used as a sign of peace; now used for ‘a person, especially a politician in favor of peace. Hawk—now also means ‘a person who believes in using forces, or in increasing violence in war, or in advocating military solutions in a conflict. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Angel—the name of a spiritual being; now it has a new meaning to refer to a radar echo (雷达反响, 异常回波) caused by something not visually discernible. In English many existing words have added new meanings in the course of time, especially in the past few decades: Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Air guitar (1982)—something imaginary Air rage (1996)—an airline passenger’s uncontrolled anger that is usually expressed in aggressive or violent behavior Black hole (1968) Bread—an American slang, meaning ‘money’ Country rock (1968)—rock music containing elements of country music Cold call (1966)—a telephone call soliciting business made directly to a potential customer without prior contact Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Family leave (1981) Family practice (1969)—family medicine (medical care) Future shock (1965) Heavy lifting (1980)—a burdensome or laborious duty Hot pants (1970)—very short pants (trousers) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Scientific creationism (1979)—a doctrine holding that the biblical account of creation is supported by scientific evidence Solar panel (1961)—a battery of solar cells Science fair (1962)—a competitive exhibition of science projects usually carried out by schoolchildren Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (3) by borrowing words from other languages From French, English has taken such words as: Auteur (1967)—a film director whose practice accords with the auteur theory; an artist whose style and practice are distinctive Autoroute (1951)—an expressway especially in France Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary From German we have: Autobahn (1939)—a German, Swiss, or Austrian expressway Humoresque (1889)—a typically whimsical or fanciful musical composition (诙谐剧) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (4) By analogy In the study of the English language we sometimes meet the way in which the form of a word is changed or derived because of another word that is like it. Apolune (1968,远月点) and perilune (1960,近月点) are new words formed from ‘aphelion’ (1956) and ‘perihelion’(1966) by using analogy This is a special kind of word-formation, that is, word-formation by analogy. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Airbag from handbag Airtel from hotel Earthrise from sunrise E-commerce from e-mail H-bomb from A-bomb Low-rise from high-rise Moonsuit from sunsuit Moonquake from earthquake Off-the-job from on-the job Picturephone from videophone Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary From White Paper (1899) English gets new words by using an analogy between names of colors: Green Paper (BrE)—a government document that proposes and invites discussion on approaches to a problem Black Paper—(BrE) an authoritative document that criticizes or censure an existing policy, practice, institution, etc. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Fourth World comes from Third World by analogy between names of numbers: Fourth World—a group of nations especially in Africa and Asia characterized by extremely low per capital income and an absence of valuable natural resources Fourth market—the private market for the sale of securities by institutional investors From the three ‘s (the ability of reading, writing, and arithmetic) English has the following expressions, such as: The three P’s (peace, petroleum, Palestine) The three I’s (inflation, interest rate, impeachment) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (5) By creating completely new coinages: Pharm—a place where genetically modified plants or animals are grown or reared in order to produce the pharmaceutical products Bebop—jazz Gobbledygook or gobbledegook—wordy and generally unintelligible jargon Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-2-1 Archaisms Archaisms sometimes are called obsolete, which are not used now except for special purpose. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The reasons for the disappearance of words 1) When two homonyms (同音异义词) collide, one word may become archaic as in queen and quean. The latter is an obsolete word meaning ‘a badly behaved woman’. 2) A word may fall into disuse when the thing the word denotes has disappeared, such as richshaw. 3) Synonymy is another factor of disappearance of words. There are 37 expressions for ‘hero’ and ‘principle’ in the Old English epic Beowulf and 30 for sea in the poems. But nowadays these words have disappeared. Obsolete words may be still used at the present time Sometimes a word or one meaning of a word has become obsolete except in a few idioms which are still in common use. For example, the word let meaning hinder or obstruct has become archaic. But it survives as a noun in the phrase without let or hindrance; let ball. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The English proverb Many a little makes a mickle is a good example for illustrating this point. In Modern English obsolete words sometimes survive, but they are different from the original in meaning. The word trident was derived from Latin. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary two elements--- tri—meaning ‘three’ dent—meaning ‘tooth’ which originally meant ‘a three-pronged spear serving in classical mythology as the attribute of a sea-god.’ Now it has come to mean “three-pronged implement”. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Some obsolete words remain in Modern English as purely historical terms Examples: maiden---a kind of guillotine (断头台)used at Edinburgh armour---defensive covering for the body worn in fighting Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Some archaic words are preserved in poetry, fiction and oratory. “rise, like Lions after slumber, … Shake your chains to earth like dew, … Ye are many—they are few.” (P.B. Shelly: The Mask of Anarchy) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-3-1 Changes in Meaning The gradual change of meaning in words is a universal feature of human language 1. Historical causes 2. Social causes 3. Psychological causes 4. Linguistic causes Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary From the sociolinguistic point of view, vocabulary not only changes, but also changes quickly. Changes in meaning can be brought about by many causes: 1. Historical causes: The word atom was borrowed from Greek. It has been regarded as the smallest indivisible particle of matter for a long time. The latest scientific discoveries have proved that an atom can be subdivided into a proton, neutron, and electron. The word is still retained to describe a different scientific concept. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2. Social causes: In the course of the development of society a number of new words are needed to describe new things. For example: futurology—consisting of two parts: future and – logy, “the science of”, “the study of” artificial intelligence—the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 3. Psychological causes: The speaker‘s state of mind may bring about semantic changes. boor and clown—from ‘a peasant’ to ‘a rude ungraceful ungentlemanly person’ and ‘a person who continually tells jokes or acts stupidly’ Both words are now used as derogatory terms. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4. Linguistic causes: There has been a tendency towards ellipsis in English. Fall=autumn—to descend or go down freely: the ellipsis of the phrase “fall of leaves”. Private=private soldier General=general officer Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-3-2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Changes Sense development of English words can be divided into four groups according to the range of the their usage and the attitude towards their senses. 1) Changes in denotative component of the lexical meaning may result in: (1) the extension of meaning; Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary (2) the narrowing of meaning. 2) Change in the connotative component may bring about: (3) the elevation of meaning; (4) the degradation of meaning. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 1 Extension of meaning (Generalization): The extension of meaning, or widening of meaning, refers to the extension of the range of the lexical meaning. Extension of meaning is one of the most common features of the history of English words. Semantic changes of the extension of meaning may occur in four ways: Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary A. From specific to general (具体词汇到一般词汇) B. From proper nouns to common nouns (专有名词到普通名词) C. From concrete to abstract (具象词汇到抽象词汇) D. From technical terms to general words (科技词汇到普遍词汇) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary A. From specific to general Picture—used to refer to painting or drawing; now it is applied to a representation of somebody or something made by painting or drawing, even a person or thing that is beautiful to look at. Journal—a daily —a periodical Industry—diligence or habitual employment in useful work —branch of trade of manufacture or (the work of ) factories and large organizations generally Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary B. From proper nouns to common nouns: Many proper nouns including person-names, place-names etc., have become common nouns used in everyday life. 1) Watt, Ampere, Volt, Newton, Joule 2) sandwich, Solomon, wellington (high boot), champagne, gin, cashmere Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary C. From concrete to abstract: The English language has its special stock of words that stand for everything. Such words are : affair, business, circumstance, concern, condition, fact, matter, means, position, regard, respect, situation, state, thing, way. The word matter originally meant ‘timber, the hard part of a tree.’ Now it has a lot of abstract meanings. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 1) The world is made of matter. 2) The matter in your essay is good. 3) This is a matter I know little about. 4) What’s the matter? 5) It made no matter to him that his brother lost all his money. Another example is the word thing. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 1) what’s the next thing we have to do? (an act, deed) 2) The murder was a terrible thing, wasn’t it? (an event) 3) The next thing is for you to get well again. (an aim or effort) 4) He says the first thing that comes into his head. (an idea) 5) She was wearing the latest thing in shoes. (the fashion or custom) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary D. From technical terms to general: The word bomb is originally a technical term (炸弹). Now it has other meanings, especially in the phrase ‘like a bomb.’ (1)The party went like a bomb.=The party was very successful. (2) The workers’ demand for higher wages was a catalyst in a s difficult state of affairs, and led to important social changes. (an agent that provokes or speed significant changes or actions) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2 Narrowing of meaning (Specialization) In the process of extension of meaning, some words acquire narrower sense. This is called narrowing of meaning, that is, specialization. The word ‘to starve’ originally meant to ‘to die.’ in Middle English it was specialized to mean ‘to die of cold,’ but in the 16th century it meant ‘to die of hunger.’ This meaning has survived in Modern English. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Three kinds of narrowing of meaning A. From general to specific (一般词汇到特殊词汇) For example, in the early times, a human or animal body, living or dead, was called corpse. Now this general term has specialized to mean ‘a dead body ,especially of a human being.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Other examples of this kind are: Meat—flesh of animal used as food, excluding that of fish and bird; it originally meant ‘food and drink.’ Wife—a married woman; it originally meant ‘a woman not necessarily married, especially one who is old and uneducated.’ Garage—building where motorcars are stored or repaired; it originally meant ‘any safe place.’ Hospital—place where people are treated for illness or injuries; it originally meant ‘a place for shelter or entertainment of travelers.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary B. From abstract to concrete (抽象词汇到具体词汇) One of the commonest transformations in the English language is a transformation from an abstract meaning to a concrete one. The word ‘catch’ which was used to describe an act of catching, especially a ball; Now it come to mean a concrete thing , namely, ‘a hook or other apparatus for fastening something or holding it shut.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary C. From common nouns to proper nouns (普通词汇到专有词汇) The word “city” means a large town, but the City refers to ‘part of London governed by Lord Mayor and Corporation, the business part of this, commercial circles.’ Peninsula means ‘a piece of land almost surrounded by water or projecting far into the sea.’ The Peninsula is used to refer to the Iberian Peninsula (伊比利亚半岛). Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Specialization has something to do with polysemy. In the process of sense-development the meaning of a word may become narrower than its primary meaning. The word ‘disease’, for instance, was formerly used for any kind of ‘discomfort,’ but now it has come to mean ‘an illness.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Specialization and generalization are closely related. The latter is now less common than the former, because language in everyday life is directed towards the concrete and specific rather than towards the abstract and general. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 3 Elevation of meaning (Amelioration 词义的升格) Words often rises from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance because of social changes. This is called elevation of meaning, or amelioration. Elevation of meaning is also a special kind of narrowing of meaning. A special narrowing of meaning is the acquisition by a word of good implications. The word ‘success’ has changed its meaning from ‘result’ to ‘good result.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The word ‘politician’ had sinister meaning: tricker in Shakespeare’s day, but now it has come to mean ‘a person whose business is politics, especially one who is a member of a parliament.’ Other examples are: Enthusiasm—ardent seal, great eagerness; it originally meant ‘extravagant religious emotion. Comrade—fellow member of a political party, etc.; it is derived from the Spanish for ‘roommate.’ Fame—being known; it originally meant ‘report’ or common talk.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4 Degradation of meaning (Deterioration词义的降格) Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning, or deterioration. There are four kinds of degradation of meaning. A. A word falls into disrepute because of social prejudice against certain classes and occupations. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Examples are: The word ‘boor’ (乡下人) has given to English the historical term ‘villein’ meaning ‘feudal serf’ (农奴) and the pejorative word ‘villain’ meaning ‘scoundrel.’ The word ‘wench’ once meant ‘a young woman or a girl, especially in the country,’ now it means ‘a lewd woman, prostitute.’ The word ‘quean’ was originally ‘a woman,’ now it has come to mean ‘an impudent or ill-behaved girl or woman.’ Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary B. A word becomes less respectable because of euphemism. We may find a number of euphemisms connected with illness and death. These words have lost their euphemistic value and relived their unpleasantness. The word ‘disease’ once meant ‘discomfort,’ now it refers to ‘an illness.’ The word ‘undertake’ means ‘one whose business is to carry out arrangements for funerals,’ but it originally meant ‘an influential person in the 17th century England. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary C. Middle terms in English belong to a special kind of ameliorative and pejorative developments. Middle terms are words which are neutral in meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable significance according to their different contexts. The word ‘fortune’ is a middle term, because it may be either good or bad, but the adjective ‘fortunate’ has a positive value. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 4-3-3 Semantic Changes from Literal Use of Words to Their Figurative Use We have discussed four tendencies in semantic change: generalization and specialization of denotative meaning, elevation and degradation of connotative meaning Words are used in two ways: 1. Literally: they have their natural and usual meaning. 2. Figuratively : they have a nonliteral, suggested meaning. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Metaphor ※makes a comparison between two unlike element and this comparison is implied rather than stated. ※does not have connecting words Simile ※ makes a comparison between two unlike element, having at least one point of resemblance in appearance, quality action or effect. ※connecting words: like, as if, as though… Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Imperialism is a paper tiger. College is a comma in the sentence of life. A silver plate is rising up in the sky. All your fingers are thumbs. He and his brother are as like as two peas. The world is like a stage. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Metaphor ①Anthropomorphic metaphor(拟人隐喻): the eye of a needle—he hole in a needle through which the thread passes. The eye of the law—according to the law , as law sees it. the teeth of a comb—any of the narrow pointed parts that stand out from a comb , saw, cog. a long narrow arm of the sea(狭长港湾)—something that is shape of this organ(臂状物) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary the brow of a hill—the upper part of a hill or a slope the elbow of a pipe—an angular pipe fitting, something resembling an elbow the lungs of London—parks and open spaces in or close to a great city the apple of the eye—the pupil, eyeball, any cherished object Adam’s apple Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary ②Animal metaphor(动物隐喻) an ass—a stupid foolish person a pig—a dirty , greedy person a goose—a silly person , especially female A rat—a worthless, disloyal man A lion—a famous and important person A black sheep—a person regarded with disfavor or shame compared to others in a group An owl—a solemn person, wise-looking dullard An ape—a person who copies the behavior of others Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary ③ Synesthetic metaphor(通感) Synesthetic metaphors are based on transition from one sense to another, such as from sound to sight or from touch to sound. For example: warm or cold temperature (literal meaning); warm or cold voice (metaphorical meaning). loud colors—loud music sweet sound—sweet piercing sound—piercing wind a golden opportunity—a golden crown Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The use of a noun as a metaphor: A ray of hope A grain of truth A shadow of doubt A flight of fancy (想入非非,异想天开) The fire of passion The wish is father to the thought Bed of roses (安逸的生活) Crocodile tears Banana oil (花巧语言) In the same camp (志同道合) Be on the thin ice Under the weather Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The use of an adjective as a metaphor: Bitter enemy Murderous heat Iron courage Give sb a dirty look (色迷迷的看) Blooming health Ironwilled ironhanded Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary The use of a verb as a metaphor: Time flies. Time presses. He bridles his anger. Spongfeed the students I sandwiched myself between two fat men on the bus. He is fond of blowing his own trumpet Throw/pour cold water on sb Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Metonymy Metonymy is a very common, useful and effective language device. Metonymy is also an important factor in the shift of meaning that involves substitution of the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it. According to different associations between names and senses metonymy can be classified as follows: ①according to names of persons: Uncle Sam: the United States government Lu Xun: Lu Xun’s works Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary ②according to names of animals: the bear: the former Soviet Union the British Lion: England ③ according to names of parts of the body: Foot: infantry Heart: feelings Head: mind , brain ④according to names of professions: Press: newspaper and magazines in general Bench: the judge himself Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary ⑤ according to locations of government, business: White House : the official home of President of US Hollywood : American film industry and its products ⑥ according to container for the thing contained: Kettle: water in the kettle Cup: a cup of tea or coffee Dish: food brought to table or in a dish The hall applauded. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Synecdoche(提喻) Synecdoche is a figure of speech that involved the substitution of the part for the whole or the whole for the part. Synecdoche may be classified into two kinds according to meaning. The part for the whole The whole for the part Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 1) The part for the whole: Hand—worker, helper we are no longer short of hands. head—person The teacher gave the students two pencils per head. bread—food He manages to earn his bread. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2)The whole for the part: Australia beat Canada in cricket. (the name of a country for a group of people of that country) The TV set is out of order. (the mechanism for the machine) The doctor cut him open and took out the appendix and stitched him up again. (a person for a part of his body) Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Euphemism Euphemism is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation. we can divide the use of euphemism into the following groups. Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 1) Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things that are painful and distressing to think about. Death to decease (for legal use) to join the (great) majority to pass away to go to heaven Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary Kill to finish to remove to do for to destroy to put away Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 2) In Western countries some people avoid using religious words or the name of God, thus people say goodness, goodness gracious instead of saying the word God. And My Gum is a euphemism of My God. My Goodness! Goodness me! For Goodness’ sake! Thank Goodness! ... Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary 3) Sometimes learned or scientific terms are used as euphemisms. effluvium -- stench perspiration -- sweat idiot -- fool 4) One interesting way of making a euphemism is to substitute the negative or opposite for a positive word. dirty -- untidy / unclean lying -- untruthful foolish -- unwise Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-1-1 Introduction Word-formation or word-building is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. The English language has increased its resources not only through the adoption of words from other languages, but also through the formation of new words with the material available in the language. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-1-2 Morphological Structure of Words 1)What is a word? A word is a minimum free form. For instance, work is a word, and so is worker. Work can not be broken down into any smaller units. Worker can be divided into two grammatically significant elements: work and -er. These minimal grammatical units are called morphemes. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English The Definition of Morpheme As pointed out by David Crystal in his book A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, the morpheme is ‘the minimal distinctive unit of grammar, and the central concern of morphology.’ The morpheme, accordingly, can be considered as ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.’ Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-1-3 Two Types of Morphemes 1)According to character Morphemes are commonly classified into forms: one is free form, and the other is bound form. Free morphemes are morphemes which can occur as separate words. Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. e.g. Unfaithful=un-+ faith +-ful Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) According to lexical and grammatical relationships Morphemes may be classified into two categories: lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes. Lexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words. For example: Chapter 5 Word-formation in English blackbird (consisting of two lexical morphemes): black and bird; friendship (created on the basis of two morphemes): friend and –ship. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense (e.g. books, studied, etc.). (1) plurality (-s) (2) possessive case (-’s) (3) past tense or past particle) (-ed) (4) present particle or gerund (-ing) (5) present simple tense (-s) (6) comparative degree or superlative degree (-er or –est) (7) in/il/ir/im- Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Morphemes are also abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units, known as morphs (语子). But some morphemes are expressed by more than one morph according to their position in a word or sentence, such alternative morphs are called allomorphs (语素变体),or morphemic variants. Examples are: books, legs, boxes. These three words have the allomorphs /s/, /z/, /iz/. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-1-4 Three Types of Words According to morphology: 1) Simple word is one which contains only one free form. e.g. man water 2) Compound word is one which consists of more than one free form. e.g. blackbird 3) Complex word is one which has one free form and one or more than one bound form. e.g. frankness=frank+-ness (free form+ bound form) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-1-5 Root, Base, Stem 1)Root: A root is the base form of a word that expresses its essential meaning, a meaning that never changes, even though affixes may be added at the beginning of a word or at the end of a word. unusefully: un-, -ful, -ly; the root=use Chapter 5 Word-formation in English English has hundreds of thousands of words built up from Latin or Greek roots. Of course, these roots are limited in number and simple in meaning. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Latin roots: Root Meaning Example Meaning acu-(acr-) sharp acute working very well, sharp bene-(benign-) well,good benefit good effect centone hundred century a period of 100 years de-(div-) a god divine of ,related to,or being God or a god ferto carry,to bring confer to give(a gift,title,ho-nor,etc.) gen-(genit-) to produce,to give birth to genesis the beginning or origin Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Latin roots: 1) acu-(acr-)—sharp: acute, acumen, acrid Ag-(act-)—do, to drive: agent, action, activate Am—to love: amateur, amity, amenity () Anim—life or mind: animate, inanimate, an animated debate Annu-(ennu-)—year: annual, Anno Domini(A.D.), anniversary Bene-(benign-)—good: benefit, benign tumor, benevolent Cap-(capt-)—to take: capture, captive, captivate Clam-(claim)—to cry out: claim, exclaim, proclaim, reclaim 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) Base: There are two explanations for the term base. ①Some linguists consider the term base to be equivalent to the term root, that is ,the part of a word remaining when all affixes have been removed. truthful truthfulness truthfully untruth untruthful untruthfulness untruthfully truth is the base form of all its derivatives Chapter 5 Word-formation in English ②Other linguists maintain that the term base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem. unhappy=un+ happy (base) unhappiness= un+ happy + ness (base) In this book the terms base and root are the same in meaning. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3) Stem: A stem is a term used as part of a classification of the kinds of elements operating within the structure of a word. That is to say, a stem is a main part of a word to which case-endings, etc. are added. classify: the root is class, the stem is classi, and the suffix is –fy. The stem and the root often coincide: shortly= short (root or stem) + ly (suffix); manly= man (root or stem)+ ly Chapter 5 Word-formation in English There are three types of stems: ①The stem, which may consist of one root morpheme, belongs to the category of the simple word. (e.g. star) ②The stem, which may consist of two root morphemes, belongs to the category of the compound word. (e.g. motherland) ③The stem, which may consist of one root morpheme and a derivational affix, belongs to the category of the complex word. (e.g. unmanly) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-2-1 The Main Processes of English Word-formation Four main types of word-formation in English: Prefixation Suffixation Conversion Compounding Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 1) Prefixation is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes with, but more usually without a change of word class. (e.g. dislike=dis-+like) There are ten categories of prefixes in English according to the meaning. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English A Negative prefixes B Reversative or privative prefixes C Pejorative prefixes D Prefixes of degree or size E Prefixes of orientation and attitude F Locative prefixes G Prefixes of time and order H Number prefixes I Miscellaneous neocalssical preixes J Conversion prefixes Chapter 5 Word-formation in English A. Negative prefixes: a-/anThe prefix a-(or an-)means ‘lacking in’ or ‘lack of.’ It combines with adjectives, or some nouns chiefly used in learned and scientific words. amoral------nonmoral; not concerned with morals Chapter 5 Word-formation in English B. Reversative or privative prefixes: unThe prefix un- has two meanings. a) The prefix un- means ‘reversing the action.’ It combines fairly freely with verbs. undo—to unfasten what is tied or wrapped b) The prefix un- means ‘depriving of,’ ‘releasing from,’ or’ degrading.’ It combines limitedly with nouns, turning them into verbs. unhorse---to dislodge from a horse Chapter 5 Word-formation in English C. Prjorative prefixes: malThe prefix mal- means ‘badly,’ ‘bad.’ It combines with verbs, participles,adjecives and abstract nouns. maltreat----to treat roughly and cruelly Chapter 5 Word-formation in English D. Prefixes of degree or size: arch— The prefix arch- means ‘supreme,’ ‘most,’ and usually with pejorative effect. It combines with nouns, chiefly with human reference. archbishop—a person in charge of churches Chapter 5 Word-formation in English E. Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti— The prefix anti- means ‘against.’ It combines freely with denominal adjectives and nouns (mainly to from premodifying adjectives). antisocial---opposed to laws or to organized societies There are two new meanings of antia) Of or belonging to the hypothetical world consisting of antimatter (the counterpart o f ordinary matter) antineutron----the antiparticle of the neutron b) That which rejects or reverses the traditional characteristics of antinovel-----a work of fiction that lacks most or all of the traditional features of the novel Chapter 5 Word-formation in English F. Locative prefixes: Locative prefixes, like spatial prepositions, may extend their meaning metaphorically to abstract spheres. foreThe prefix fore- means ‘front part of,’ ‘front.’ It combines fairly freely with nouns. forehead---the part of the face above the eyes and below the hair Chapter 5 Word-formation in English G. Prefixes of time and order: exThe prefix ex- means ‘former.’It combines freely with human nouns. ex-husband-----former husband Chapter 5 Word-formation in English H. Number prefixes: bi-,diThe prefix bi-and di- mean ‘two’ biped—a two-footed creature digraph—a pair fo letters that represent one sound Chapter 5 Word-formation in English I. Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes: autoThe prefix auto- means ‘self.’ It combines freely with nouns and adjectives autocrat----a ruler with unlimited power Chapter 5 Word-formation in English J. Conversion prefixes: enThe prefix en- chiefly combines with nouns to form verbs, means ‘to put into’ or ‘to provide with’ endanger---to cause danger to Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) suffixation Suffixation is main type of word-formation, putting a suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually with a change of word class. (e.g. frankness=frank+ness) A noun suffixes B adjective suffixes C adverb suffixes D verb suffixes Chapter 5 Word-formation in English A. Noun suffixes: Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the following five kinds. 1)Denominal nouns: abstract -age: measure of/collection of luggage-----the case, bags, boxes, etc. of a traveler Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) Denominal nouns: concrete -eer: skilled in /engaged in engineer---a person who is devoted to engineering work Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3) Deverbal nouns: -ant:a person or thing Inbabitant—a person who lives in a particular place regularly,as a general rule or for a period of time Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 4) De-adjectival nouns: -ness: the stated condition, quality or degree frankness---the condition of being frank 5)Noun/adjective suffixes: -ese: member of (nationality or race)/the language Chinese-----a native or an inhabitant of China/the Chinese language Chapter 5 Word-formation in English B. Adjective suffixes: Adjective suffixes can be subdivided into two groups. 1) Denominal suffixes: denominal suffixes have the function of forming adjectives, especially from nouns. -ed: having pointed----shaped to a point at one end Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) Deverbal suffixes: -able: of the kind that can be done eatable---(of food) in a fit condition to eaten Chapter 5 Word-formation in English C. Adverb suffixes: -ly: The suffix –ly can be added to an adjective to form an adverb. a) It means ‘in a…manner.’ calmly (from calm)---smoothly b) It means ‘in a….respect.’ personally (from personal)---as far as oneself is concerned c) It means ‘in a …degree.’ extremely (from extreme)--very Chapter 5 Word-formation in English D .Verb suffixes: -ate The suffix –ate combines with mainly neolalsscial noun bases. hyphenate----to join with hyphen Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3 conversion Conversion (or full conversion) is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. Conversion: Full conversion+ Partial conversion release (v)---release (n) (full conversion) wealthy (adj)---the wealthy (n) (partial conversion) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Conversion can be classified into four categories according to word classes: conversion to noun conversion to verb conversion to adjective minor categories of conversion Chapter 5 Word-formation in English A. Conversion to noun: Deverbal a) To denote the state of mind of sensation (e.g. desire) b) To denote an event or activity (e.g. attempt) c) As object of the given verb (e.g. answer) d) As subject of the given verb (e.g. cheat) e) As instrument of the given verb (e.g. cover) f) As manner of the given verb (e.g. walk) g) As place of the given verb (e.g. divide) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English De-adjectival I’d like two of bitter, please. the sweets and bitters daily—daily newspaper bimonthly—bimonthly magazine perennial—perennial plant Chapter 5 Word-formation in English B. Conversion to verb 1) Denominal a) To put in N (e.g. bottle) b) To give N or to provide with N (e.g. coat) c) To deprive of N (e.g. skin) d) To do with N (e.g. knife) e) To be or act as N with respect to (e.g. father) f) To make or change into N (e.g. cash) g) To send or go by N (e.g. mail) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) De-adjectival a) (transitive verb) to make adj. or to make more adj. ( e.g .calm) b) (intransitive verb) to become adj. (e.g. dry) Dry—become dry Yellow—become yellow Grey—become grey Chapter 5 Word-formation in English C. Conversion to adjective This category has only one type: Demominal a brick garage—The garage is brick. a very Oxbridge accent—His accent is Oxbridge. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English D. Minor categories of conversion 1) Conversion to nouns : a) Conversion from closed-system words to nouns. (e.g. His speech contains too many ifs and buts.) b) Conversion from affixes to nouns. (e.g. This is the age of isms.) c) Conversion from phrases to nouns. (e.g. My horse is one of the also-rans.) 2) Conversion to verbs (e.g. They downed tools in protest.) 3) Conversion to adjectives (e.g. a face-to-face interview) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English According to the same word-classes A. The change of secondary word class: nouns 1) Noncount---nouns a) a unit of N (e.g. two coffees) b) A kind of N (e.g. Some paints are more lasting than others.) c) An instance of N (with abstract nouns) (e.g. small kindness) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) Count nouns---Noncount nouns e.g. an inch of cigarette 3) Proper nouns---Common nouns a) A member of the class typified by N (e.g. Edinburgh in England and Boston in the United States are called the Modern Athens.) b) A person,place,etc. called N (e.g. There are two Zhang Mings in our college.) c) A specimen of the product made by N (e.g. ten Players) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 4) Stative nouns---Dynamic nouns He’s being an actor. (He’s behaving like an actor.) B. The change of secondary word class: verbs 1) Intransitive verbs---Transitive verbs Cause to V (e.g. run the water) 2)Transitive verbs---Intransitive verbs a) Can be V-ed (e.g. The table polished up badly.) b) To V oneself (e.g. Have you washed yet?) c) To V someone or something , etc. (e.g. We have eaten already.) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3) Intransitive verbs---Copular verbs a) Current meaning (e.g. He lay flat.) b) Resulting meaning (e.g. The water ran hot) 4) Copular verbs---Intransitive verbs What must be, must be (exist). Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5) Monotransitive verbs---Complex transitive verbs a) Current meaning: I prefer tea green. b) Resulting meaning: He knocked the boy flat. The following examples belong to this group: buy, find, hate, like, sell, etc. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English C. The change of secondary word class: adjectives 1) Nongradable adjectives---Gradable adjectives Some people’s behavior is rather incredible. 2) Stative adjectives---Dynamic adjectives My brother’s being careful. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English In some cases conversion is related to certain changes of pronunciation, spelling and stress 1)Voicing of final consonants noun: abuse advice belief grief relief verb: abuse advise believe grieve relieve 2)Shift of stress verb: conduct compound digest export noun: conduct compound digest export Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 4. Compounding Compounding is a main type of word-formation adding one base to another, such that usually the one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes the one that follows. (e.g. blackbird) Compounding can occur not only in nouns, adjectives and verbs but also in prepositions, pronouns and adverbs. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English What is a compound? Compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to word classes: Noun compounds, Adjective compounds and Verb compounds. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Noun compounds 1)Type ‘subject and verb’ a) subject+deverbal noun (e.g. sunrise) b) verb+subject (e.g. crybaby) c) Verbal noun in –ing+subject (e.g. dancing girl) 2)Type ‘verb and object’ a) object+deverbal noun (e.g. haircut) b) object+edverbal noun in –ing (e.g.sightseeing) c) object+agential noun in –er (e.g. language teacher) d) verb+object (e.g. drawbridge) e) verbal noun in –ing +object (e.g. reading material) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3)Type ‘verb and adverbial’ a) verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (e.g. swimming pool) b) adverbial+verbal noun in –ing (e.g. daydreaming) c) adverbial+agential noun in –er (e.g. babysitter) d) adverbial+deverbal noun (e.g. homework) e) verb+adverbial (e.g. dancehall) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 4) Type ‘subject and object’ a) n.+n.(n. powers or operates n.) (e.g. windmill) b) n.+n.(n.produces n.) (e.g. toyfactory) c) n.+n.(n.produces n.) (e.g. canesugar) d) n.+n.(n.has n.) (e.g. tableleg) e) n.+n.(n. control or works in connection with n.) (e.g. securityofficer) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5)Type ‘subject and complement’ a) n.+n.(n.is n. )(e.g .girlfriend) b) adj.+n.(n.is an adj.) (e.g. darkroom) c) n.+n.(n.is like n.) (e.g. frogman) d) n.+n.(n. is of or consists of n.) (e.g. raindrop) e) n.+n.(n is for n) (e.g. tearoom) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 6)Type ‘combining form and noun’ a) n.(in its combining form)+n. (n. in respect of n.) (e.g. agriculture) b) n.+n. (in its combining form)+n. (n in respect of n) (e.g. psychology) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 7)Type ‘exocentric compounds’ (离心结构合成词) Exocentric compounds are compounds which refer not to their pattern of formation, but to the relation they have with the referents. These compounds are somewhat derogatory in meaning and are used chiefly in the informal style. birdbrain—a stupid person butterfingers—a person unable to hold things blockhead—a foolish brained person Chapter 5 Word-formation in English B. Adjective compounds 1)Type ‘verb and object’ (e.g. man-eating) 2)Type ‘verb and adverbial’ a) adverbial+-ing paticiple (e.g. ocean-going) b) adverbial+ -ed participle (e.g. heat-felt) c) adverbial./adjective-ing participle (e.g. hard-working) d) adjective/adverb+-ed participle (e.g. dry-cleaned) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3)Type ‘verbless’ a) noun-based adverbial of respect+adjective (e.g footsore) b) noun+adjective (e.g. grass-green) c) adjective+adjective (e.g. grey-green) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English C. Verb compounds 1)Type ‘object and verb’(e.g.sightsee) 2)Type ‘adverbial and verb’(e.g.spring-clean) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Reduplicative compounds (重叠合成词) a) The first kind of reduplicatives are those that imitate sounds (e.g. rat-a-tat=sound of knocking) b) The second kind of reduplicatives are those that suggest alternating movements (e.g. see-saw) c) The third kind of reduplicatives are those that disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc. (e.g. higgledy-piggledy=in disorder) d) The forth kind of reduplocatives are those that intensify. (e.g. tip-top=excellent) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5-2-2 The Minor Processes of English Wordformation English uses minor word-formation processes. Here are six devices which are considered as means of forming new words on the basis of old ones. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Clipping or shortening (截短法) Acronyms (首字母法) Blending (拼缀法) Back-formation (逆构词法) Forming new words by analogy (类比法) Onomatopoeia (拟声法) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 1 Clipping or shortening Clipping or shortening is a method of shortening a word without changing its meaning. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Seven types of clipping are listed below. 1) Front clippings bus -----------from omnibus 2) Back clippings ad-------------from advertisement 3) Front and back clippings flu-------------from influenza 4) Middle clippings maths--------from mathematics 5) Phrase clippings pub-----------from public house 6) Journalist clippings H.K.-----------from Hong Kong 7) Back clipping+suffix comfy---------from comfortable Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2 Acronyms Acronyms are a special kind of clipping. An acronym is a word formed from the initial letter of a word that makes up a name. There are two types of acronyms according to pronunciation and morphological structures. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 1) Acronyms which are pronounced as sequence of letters can be called alphabetisms. a) The letters represent full words. (e.g. UN--the United Nations) b) The letters represent elements in a compound or just parts of a word. (e.g. TV--television) c) The letters represent one word. (e.g. BBQ-barbecue) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 2) Acronyms are pronounced as a word. LAN----Local Area Network TOEFL----Test of English as a Foreign Language Acronyms may be subdivided into six groups according to their usage. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English a) Acronyms expressing the names of organizations. (e.g. FBI—Federal Bureau of Investigation) b) Acronyms representing the names of mechanisms. (e.g. NS—nuclear ship) c) Acronyms denoting scientific terms .(e.g. DP—data processing) d) Acronyms expressing the title of a technical or professional post. (e.g. DA—Doctor of Arts) e) Acronyms representing common words.(e.g. TV— television) f) semi-acronyms (e.g. N-bomb—nuclear bomb) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 3 Blending Blending is a very productive process, esp in commercial coinages. A blend is a compound word made by blending one word with another word. That is to say, blending is a process of wordformation, in which a new word is made by using the parts or the full of form of the two words and combining their meanings. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Four types of blending according to their morphological structures: a) The front part of the first word+the back part of the second word: botel—boat+hotel (a waterside hotel for tourists) Chapter 5 Word-formation in English b) The first word+the back part of the second word: moonmark—moon+landmark(a landmark on the moon) c) The front part of the first word+the second word: Eurasia (n)—European+Asia d) The front parts of the first word and the second word: Amerind—American+Indian Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 4 Back-formation Back-formation is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived deleting an imagined affix from an already existing longer word in the vocabulary. Affixation and back-formation are two contrary processes of word-formation. The former is a method of forming new words by means of affixes while the latter by cutting imagined affixes. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English According to its origin back-formation may be formed from the following parts of speech. a) From nouns ending in –er,-ar,-or,-sion, etc. to aggress—from aggression b) From nouns ending in other forms: to type—from typewriter c) from noun compounds: to baby-sit—from baby-sitter d) From adjectives: to laze—from lazy Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 5 Forming new words by analogy The process of analogical creation is one of the tendencies in English word-formation. A new word or a new phrase is coined by an analogy between a newly created one and an existing corresponding one. There are two types of analogically coined words: one is single words, the other is phrase. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English a) Single words: the words earthrise and moonrise are derived from the word sunrise by analogy. b) phrases: the phrase off-the-job comes from the phrase on-the-job by means of analogy. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English 6 Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the oldest device of wordformation used to name a thing or an action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. In other words, onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound suggests sense. Chapter 5 Word-formation in English Echoic words may be classified into three types according to their functions. a) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by animals: bark—to make the sound that dogs make, sharp and loud; the sound made by a dog. b) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by person: boo—a shout of disapproval or strong disagreement. c) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by things: bang—to strike sharply; a sudden loud noise. Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-1-1 The Definition of Idioms An idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use. An idiom is a fixed group of words or a single word, or even a sentence, with a special meaning that cannot be guessed from its structure. The meaning of an idiom must be learned as a whole. Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-1-2 The significance of Studying English Idioms The correct use of idiomatic English must be one of the main aims for nonnative learners, because learning and using idioms is the best way to master the language. In standard spoken and written English today idiom is an established, universal and essential element that, used with care, ornaments and enriches the language.( V.H. Collins A Book of English Idioms) Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-1-3 The Features of English Idioms 1. English idioms can be very short or rather long. (1) An Indian summer We had a splendid Indian summer last October . (2) forty winks I managed to get forty winks after lunch. Chapter 6 English Idioms (3) to be all in After finishing the task ,I was all in (exhausted) (4) right-hand man Alice was my right-hand man during the election . (5) rock the boat Even if you don't agree with me, you mustn't rock the boat at this critical time. Chapter 6 English Idioms (6) red-letter day This is a red-letter day for Susan. She made her first sale to a very important client. Long idioms: (1) All good things come to an end. (2) to be like a bear with a sore head (be badtempered). (3) to cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth. Chapter 6 English Idioms 2. English idioms take different structures. An irregular and illogical structure. “I’m good friends with him.” Diamond cut diamond. 棋逢对手,势均力敌 The devil take the hindmost. 落到最后,只好吃亏 (听天由命) Chapter 6 English Idioms A regular structure, but the meaning is not clear. To have a bee in one’s bonnet( head). (胡思乱想,想的出了神) out of the world=wonderful play it by ear (看情况而定) not lift a finger (袖手旁观) Most English idioms belong to this category. Chapter 6 English Idioms Out of this world Have you ever tried the cakes in Anna’s cake house? Yup, their chocolate is just out of the world. Play it by ear So, what are we going to do when I visit you in Los Angeles? I’m not sure yet. Let’s play it by ear. Not lift a finger He spends all day stretched out on the sofa and never lift a finger to help. Chapter 6 English Idioms 3.The idioms which cannot be changed at all are called fixed idioms. A Stitch in time saves nine. You’d better fix the leak in the roof before it gets worse. After all, a stitch in time saves nine. Bone of the bone and flesh. (血肉关系) Our army is bone of the bone and flesh of the people. To come to a bad end. (死无葬身之地) Chapter 6 English Idioms 4. An English idiom has a special meaning. To rain cats and dogs. 猫和狗向来是宿敌,打起架来总是闹的天翻地覆,号叫和尖 锐的撕叫声,就像是雷雨交加,也因此用“下猫下狗”来比喻下 着倾盆大雨。也有人说,过去的地下排水系统不好,只要一连下 好几天大雨,野猫野狗被淹死的尸体便在街上四处漂浮。 另外一个关于此语的起源是,北欧的神话中,控制暴风雨的 女巫通常都会化身为黑猫,而海上的水手们见到猫便会知道暴风 雨即将袭来,他们之间还流传着一句成语: "The cat has a gale of wind in her tail “ (猫尾巴里藏大风) Chapter 6 English Idioms 不只是看到猫表示天气不好,狗也是大风 的象征。若是暴风雨之神奥丁(Odin)带着猫 狗一起来,那么就会大雨滂沱,狂风大作。 When we were well on the way, it began to rain cats and dogs. Chapter 6 English Idioms 5. English idioms are not only used as colloquial expressions, they can also be found in formal situations, in poetry or fiction, or in slang. Many idioms can be used in any situation. (see 6-1-4) Chapter 6 English Idioms 6. Some idioms consist of obsolete words. 1.For the sake of safety, you must keep all medicines away from children. 2.She ran hither and thither in the yard.=in all directions 3." Stop thief, " cried Smith as he ran. Others joined him, and soon there was a hue and cry.=angry protests about something 4.Chinese people living all over the world are our kith and kin.=friends and relations 居住在世界各地的华人都是我们的骨肉同胞。 5.At one o'clock in the afternoon, Tom was pacing to and fro in his office, now smiling grimly, now drawing his brows together in a frown . 午后一点钟了。屠维岳在自己房里来回踱着,时时冷笑,又时时 皱着眉头。 Chapter 6 English Idioms 7. English idioms represent a semantic unit, though they contain a group of words. make up one’s mind = decide look down upon = despise 8. English idioms are usually made of commonly-used words. cry for the moon put the cart before the horse turn up one’s nose at=show distain for Chapter 6 English Idioms 1.This is a chance once in a blue moon.(千载难逢) 2. Deciding what to wear before you’ve even been invited to the party is rather putting the cart before the horse, isn't it? (本末倒置) Chapter 6 English Idioms 9. English idioms are often created on the basis of alliteration, rhyme, euphony and repetition. Alliteration: black and blue 遍体鳞伤的 first and foremost 首要的 part and parcel 重要的部分 time and tide wait for no man Chapter 6 English Idioms Repetition : again and again 反复,再三 by and by 不久,马上 by little and little 逐渐的,一点一点地 over and over (again) wear and tear 磨损 Chapter 6 English Idioms Rhyme: dine and wine 吃喝 here and there out and about 彻底地 rough and tough 粗野的 Chapter 6 English Idioms Many idioms may produce euphonic effect according to their sounds and structures. Examples are: A stitch in time saves nine. an eye for an eye (and a tooth for a tooth) Beggars cannot be choosers. 不能挑肥拣瘦 Look before you leap. First come, first served. Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-1-4 English Idioms in Different styles. 1. Idioms used in colloquial style. a bird’s-eye view (全局观念) If you have a bird’s-eye view of a situation, you’ll have a clear idea of what’s happening. a little bird (消息灵通人士) How did you known they broke up? Ah, a little bird told me. Chapter 6 English Idioms a rainy day 艰难的日子 You should save a little money for a rainy day. cut to the chase 之切主题 Don’t talk too much- just cut to the chase, ok? fat chance=slim chance; little chance It’s a fat chance of your winning the jackpot in the lottery. Chapter 6 English Idioms Similar examples are: To Serve someone right (罪有应得) No buts about it=no doubts bout it A cat-and-dog life (水火不容的生活) Down to the ground=perfectly; completely To fill the bill=to be exactly suitable Shoot the works (尽情享受) Born yesterday (单纯的,易上当的) Chapter 6 English Idioms 2.Idioms used in any situation: to pass over=try not to mention something Let us pass over his rude remarks in silence. to go over I’ll go over the explanation of how it works. The police went over the gun for fingerprints. to go along=agree with We’ll go along with your suggestion. Chapter 6 English Idioms 3.Idioms used in formal situations: come to the point Attention! Now I’m coming to the point. at random She took a book at random and sat down with it open on her lap. In return (for sb.) I bought him a drink in return for his help. Chapter 6 English Idioms 4.Idioms used as slang carry coal to Newcastle To write another book on the same topic means to carry coal to Newcastle. eat like a horse The little boy eats like a horse though he is only nine. every dog has its day Though I’m humble now every dog has its day. to put the screw on someone=force sb. to do sth. to butter up=to flatter someone Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-1-5 The Difference Between Idiomatic and Free Phrases Free phrases are ones in which the meaning can be guessed from their components. Sometimes the same phrasal verbs can be used as free phrases as well as idioms. For example: “We got up early everyday.” (free phrase) “The students will get up an English evening next month. (idiom, meaning ‘to arrange’ or perform’) Chapter 6 English Idioms Idiomatic phrases with a special meaning that cannot be guessed from the combination of actual words used. For example: blue book=an official report cold comfort=a wet blanket Chapter 6 English Idioms There are three types of phrasal verbs: 1) Verb+adverb, as in: Please take the children in; it’s getting too cold out here. (Free phrase) Were you really taken in by an old trick like that? (Idiom) Chapter 6 English Idioms 2) Verb+preposition, as in: The quickest way to go about the city is by underground train. (Free phrase) How do you go about building a boat? (Idiom) =start 3) Verb+adverb+preposition, as in: You can put the shelf up with a hammer and nails. (Free phrase) I can’t put up with him; he’s always complaining. (Idiom) =bear Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-2-1 Classifications of English Idioms There are five groups of idioms in English: Idiomatic expressions with specific grammatical structures Phrases identified with the familiar parts of speech Chapter 6 English Idioms Idioms not correlative with a given grammatical part of speech Idioms expressing greeting, surprise, praise, or criticism Proverbs Chapter 6 English Idioms 1 Idiomatic expressions with specific grammatical structures (1) With specific morphological structures: a) double genitive case of pronoun noun: In the phrase a friend of mine, of mine is a double genitive case of a pronoun. But we cannot say ‘a friend of me,’ although of me is a grammatically normal genitive case. Chapter 6 English Idioms a play of Shakespeare’s= a play of Shakespeare. (But the former is rich in emotive charge.) a picture of the student ≠a picture of the student’s b) the superlative degree of an adjective in place of the comparative degree of it: Chapter 6 English Idioms c) the conversion of one word class into another: In English idioms almost any word class can be converted into another word class. There are four kinds of conversion according to word classes: (a) the conversion of adjectives into verbs : Sorrow greyed his head. Chapter 6 English Idioms (b) the conversion of nouns into verbs : He bridles his anger. (c) the conversion of adverbs into nouns: Every why has a wherefore.=reason Never mind the why(s) and wherefore(s) . Chapter 6 English Idioms (d) the conversion of prepositions into nouns: the ins and outs (i) the political party in office and the political party out of office; (ii) the various parts and difficulties : to be seen when something is looked at in detail. (来龙去脉) But me no buts=Don’t argue with; Don’t give me excuse) Chapter 6 English Idioms (2) With specific syntactical structures: a) adverbial clauses of concession joined by the conjunction ‘as’: Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. Predicative+ as+ subject+ link verb is called a partial conversion Chapter 6 English Idioms (b) the imperative sentence+ the imperative sentence joined by a comma: waste not ,want not. (c) the imperative sentence + the declarative sentence introduced by and Talk of the devil and he will appear. (If you talk of the devil, he is sure to appear.) Chapter 6 English Idioms 2 Phrase identified with the familiar parts of speech: (1) Noun phrase: a) adjective + noun: green fingers — skills as a gardener an early bird —somebody who gets up or arrives early bad blood—angry feeling narrow escape white elephant Chapter 6 English Idioms b) noun + noun : zip code—post code brain drain monkey business— mischievous or dishonest behaviors top dog—the person in the highest or most important position Chapter 6 English Idioms c) noun + and + noun : flesh and blood— human beings; relatives. son and heir— the first son odds and ends— a variety of small items , the pieces left over. part and parcel—a most important part rank and file—the common soldiers the pros and cons—the arguments for and against a matter Chapter 6 English Idioms d) noun + preposition + noun: a bed of roses— a happy comfortable state (not) a ray of hope— (no) some grounds of hope a storm in a tea-cup— a violent agriculture over a trifle a bag of bones—a a very thin person a drugs on the market—goods which no one wishes to buy a pie in the sky—a Utopian plan or suggestion Chapter 6 English Idioms e) noun + ’s + noun : somebody’s Sunday best—somebody’s best clothes a dog’s life—miserable life the lion’s share—the greatest part cat’s paw (被人利用的人) Chapter 6 English Idioms (2) Adjective phrases: a) adjective + and + adjective: high and mighty— too proud rough and ready— simple without comfort high and dry— without help Chapter 6 English Idioms b) preposition + noun: on edge—nervous at second-hand—obtained from others on the go—working all the time on pins and needles—worried; nervous in the original Chapter 6 English Idioms c) adjective + preposition: indifferent to—not interested in; not caring about or noticing applicable to—able to have an effect on; directed towards ashamed of—feeling shame , guilt, sorrow (because of something done) Chapter 6 English Idioms d) as + adjective + as: as drunk as a lord—very drunk as busy as a bee—very busy as happy as a sand boy—very happy as cool as a cucumber—very calm and brave as fit as a fiddle—in very good health as like as two beans/peas—very similar as dark as pitch—extraordinarily dark Chapter 6 English Idioms e) noun + and + noun life-and-death—serious ,crucial, deciding between life and death blood and thunder—full of meaningless action, violence (and noise) bread-and-butter—concerned with the things that are necessary for life Chapter 6 English Idioms 3)Verbal phrases: A) Verb+ preposition —prepositional verbs a) intransitive verb + preposition: to look after—to take care of to look into—to investigate; to examine to go against—to act in opposition to Chapter 6 English Idioms b) transitive verb +preposition: to put at—to guess (something) to be to (something) to get into—to put (oneself or someone else) into a bad condition to keep to—to keep something private to oneself Chapter 6 English Idioms 2 The patterns of verb +adverb can be subdivided into two groups. a) intransitive verb+ adverb to call up— to telephone to come back — to become fashionable or popular again to get back— to return ,especially to one’s home Chapter 6 English Idioms b) transitive verb +adverb to get down—to swallow with difficulty to make over— to change to keep back—to keep silent about Chapter 6 English Idioms 3 verb +adverb+ preposition. (prepositional phrasal verbs) a) intransitive verb +adverb +preposition to come out with—to say ,especially suddenly or unexpectedly: to publish to go in for—to take part in (a test of skill or knowledge) Chapter 6 English Idioms b) transitive verb +adverb +preposition to put down to—to state that (something) is caused by (something) to talk out of—to persuade (someone) not to do (something) Chapter 6 English Idioms 4) Adverbial phrases a) noun +and +noun head and shoulder—much better at something than everyone else body and soul—heart and soul right and left—in large number, from every side Chapter 6 English Idioms b) adverb +and +adverb It should be noted that the order of the two adverbs is fixed by usage and cannot be changed. up and down—backwards and forward over and over—repeatedly on and on—without stopping Chapter 6 English Idioms c) preposition +noun Most adverbial phrases consist of preposition +noun as one man—with the agreement of everyone by all means—certainly by no means—not at all Chapter 6 English Idioms d) noun +adverb (or-ed participle) hands down—win easily all together—altogether sight unseen—without a chance of seeing or examining Chapter 6 English Idioms e) preposition + noun + and + noun through fair and foul— at all times: in both bad and good fortune between the devil and the deep (blue) sea— facing two choices ,both of which are bad Chapter 6 English Idioms 3 Idioms not correlative with a given grammatical part of speech Phraseological idioms, which are an entire clause in length, do not readily correlate with a given grammatical part of speech. They cannot be changed from the active voice to the passive voice. Chapter 6 English Idioms a) transitive verb + noun (direct object) blow town— leave a place quickly ring a bell— sound familiar play the (old) violin— try to get sympathy Chapter 6 English Idioms b) transitive verb + pronoun to catch it—to be in trouble with someone for doing something wrong; get scolded or punished to make it—to arrive in time; to succeed to go it—to proceed in a rapid or furious manner Chapter 6 English Idioms c) transitive verb + object + prepositional phrase: to put one’s head into the lion’s mouth—to take a great risk to cast sb. in the role of the villain—fix blame on sb. to cast light on sth— make sth. clearer Chapter 6 English Idioms d) transitive verb + noun + infinitive: to keep [save] one’s breath to cool one’s porridge—to keep silent because talking will not help to make (both) ends meet—to get just enough money for one’s needs Chapter 6 English Idioms e) transitive verb + noun + -ing participle, or –ed participle, or adjective to do one’s heart good — to give satisfaction; to please to have one’s hands full— to be very busy to keep the ball rolling— to keep the conversation, etc. going Chapter 6 English Idioms f) verb + adjective: to go red— to blush to look green— to look sick to come clean— to admit one’s guilt; to tell the unpleasant truth Chapter 6 English Idioms g) adverbial clause: if the worst comes to the worst—if the worst difficulties happen; if there is no better way when hell freezes over—never when it comes to—to be about to; to be in the field of Chapter 6 English Idioms h) the construction of the participle: other things being equal—if conditions are or were the same or alike except for the point in question weather permitting—if the weather is good enough Chapter 6 English Idioms i) verb + noun + adverb : to come out in the wash— (of something shameful ) to become known to give up the ghost— to die Chapter 6 English Idioms 4 Idioms expressing greeting, surprise, praise or criticism. Here are a number of habitual expressions in daily conversation which have a meaning that can not be inferred from the meaning of their individual words. Chapter 6 English Idioms Examples are: How do you do ? (a polite style , used when introduced to someone , in later meetings, say : How are you ? ) How are you doing ? ( an informal greeting to a friend , used in the United States) You don’t say (so ). (an expression of slight surprise) Chapter 6 English Idioms 5 Proverbs Proverbs are a special kind of English idioms. According to their structures English proverbs have the following groups: a) the elliptical sentence: Like father, like son. Wine in, truth out. Easy come, easy go. Chapter 6 English Idioms b) the simple sentence: Practice makes perfect. Every dog has his day. A fault confessed is half redressed They have been more and more stable in structure , and become commonly-used idioms in Modern English, while their original proverbs become clichéd: Chapter 6 English Idioms Birds of a feather is derived from the proverb Birds of a feather flock together, and is used as an idiom to indicate “people of the same sort,” as in the sentence: “The neighbors thought that she and her boyfriend were birds of a feather.” Chapter 6 English Idioms c) the imperative sentence: ‘to grasp the nettle’ is an example derived fro the proverbs “Grasp the nettle and it won’t sting you ,” and is used as an idiom to indicate ‘to attack a difficult situation or problem with bold determination,’ as in the sentence, “We are wasting time in talk; let us grasp the nettle and start work.” (勇敢地克服艰难) Chapter 6 English Idioms d) the composed sentence Never trouble troubles till trouble troubles you. You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours. (捧别人场) — If one person furthers the interests of another , the other will also further his interests in return. Chapter 6 English Idioms e) the complex sentence: All that glitters is not gold— Not everything that seems good is gold. If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well. (不要半途而废) Make hay while the sun shines. (及时把握机会) strike while the iron is hot.=Seize a good opportunity Chapter 6 English Idioms 6-2-2 English Idioms Around Different Subjects 1. Idioms containing names of birds and animals: (1) a bird’s eye view —— wide view seen from high up . (2) to follow like sheep —— to follow blindly . Chapter 6 English Idioms some more examples: (3) no spring chicken —— no longer young . She needs lots of make-up to hide the fact that she’s no spring chicken . (4) take the bull by the horns —— face a problem directly . You need to take the bull by the horns . Chapter 6 English Idioms 2. Idioms containing names of parts of the human body . (1) to get one’s back up —— to become or to make angry . (2) to cross one’s fingers —— to cross two fingers of one hand for good luck . Some more examples: Chapter 6 English Idioms (3) have the upper hand —— gain control . ( 占上风;处于有利地位) At last he got the upper hand over his opponent and out knocked him . (4) shut/close sb’s eyes to sth —— refuse to see or take notice of sth. The lock government shuts its eyes to pollution. Chapter 6 English Idioms 3. Idioms involving colors : (1) to look green —— to look sick . (2) a bolt from the blue —— sth quite unexpected . The news came like a bolt from the blue . Chapter 6 English Idioms 4. Idioms containing words related to clothes: (1) to fit like a glove —— to fit perfectly . (2) be in sb. shots —— in sb’s difficulties or problems . I would not want to be in her shoes. (3) keep sth under sb's hat —— keep it secret . Chapter 6 English Idioms 5. Idioms involving time (1) like clock-work —— smoothly All work will be finished like clock-work. (2) lose the day —— not win the day (3) up to the minute —— fashionable Her clothes are always right up to the minute. Chapter 6 English Idioms 6.Idioms involving flowers and plants (1) to nip the bud —— to destroy at an early stage (2)hide sb's light under a bushel —— be modest (3)in the bloom of youth —— in full beauty of youth Chapter 6 English Idioms 7.Idioms containing words related to fruit (1) a hard nut to crack —— a problem difficult to solve (2) a bad apple —— a person who has a bad influence (3) go bananas —— go crazy Chapter 6 English Idioms 8. Idioms involving food and cooking (1) eat humble pie —— be very apologetic When he realized his mistake ,he had to eat humble pie. Chapter 6 English Idioms (2) a good egg —— sb. who you can depend on to be honest, kind ,etc. I had a letter from a good egg who used to own the corner shop. (3) sell /go like hot cakes —— sell quickly or in great numbers The book sold like hot cakes and we had to print another ten thousand copies. Chapter 6 English Idioms 9. Idioms containing words related to shapes or measures (1) bring sth. into line —— cause sth to conform He managed to bring the whole committee into line. (2) reach the end of the line —— reach the point of where it breaks down There friendship reach the end of the line. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-1-1 English as a Language of Worldwide Use Users include three major groups: 1) speak English as native language (United States, Britain, Ireland, etc.); 2) use English as second language (India, Pakistan, Nigeria); 3) speak and write English as a foreign language (China, Germany, Japan) Chapter 8 British and American English 8-1-2 British and American English English(under the influence of geography,history, culture and social customs) British English used in British Isles States Australia New Zealand American English used in the United Canada Chapter 8 British and American English British and American English should be regarded as two different forms of one language,not two different language. Why does American English differ from British English? Chapter 8 British and American English Firstly, British English itself changed in the course of time. cafeteria highlight Secondly ,American English has acquired a character of its own. moose congress Chapter 8 British and American English 8-1-3 The History Background of American English The development of English Language in America can be separated into three periods : Chapter 8 British and American English 1. The first period extends from the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 to the end of colonial time. 2. The second period covers the expansion of the original thirteen colonials. 3. The third period, since the civil war,is marked by an important changes in the sources from Which the immigrants came. Chapter 8 British and American English As time went by the English language gradually changed on both sides of the Atlantic. The Americans adopted many words from foreign languages and invented large numbers of new words to meet their various needs. Chapter 8 British and American English With the rapid development of modern mass media and the common needs of economic,cultural and political exchanges, American English will be more widely used in the world than British English. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-1Differences between British English and American English Grammatical differences between British English and American English are few .The more noticeable difference are phonetic and especially lexical. The tendency is towards uniformity and better understanding between the people of the two counties, as the modes of communication have improved. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-2 Difference In Individual Sounds (1)Americans prefer to use flat \a\ , similar to \æ\. For example: Bag dad path grass But Englishmen currently used \a\ . Chapter 8 British and American English (2)Americans prefer to use \r\ at the end of words car, etc. or before consonants as in hard ,etc ;in British English the \r\ is not pronounced. Chapter 8 British and American English (3) Words in stressed syllable spelled with a letter o followed by a single explosive consonant, such as dog, not, stop are pronounced by British speakers with a rounded and short vowel , whereas in America, people use with no rounding of lips. Chapter 8 British and American English (4) Words beginning with wh in which when why etc. are pronounced differently in British and American English, e.g. when why [BrE] \wen\ \wai\ [ArE] \’hwen\ \hwi\ Chapter 8 British and American English (5)The letter a is consonant combinations aft ,ask,ass,ath and ance is pronounced as \a:\. In British English, whereas a is pronounced as \a\ in American English. advance dance [BrE]\əd’va:ns\ \da:ns\ [ArE]\əd-’van(t)s\ \dan(t)s\ Chapter 8 British and American English (6)Diphthongs in British English are replaced by long vowels in American English. /ei/ by /a/ /eə/ by /e/ /əu/ by /o/ /iə/ by /i/ Chapter 8 British and American English 7)In British English four-syllabled words ending in –ary or –ery are pronounced as three syllables. Chapter 8 British and American English 8)/ʌ/ in British English is pronounced as /ə/ in American English. Chapter 8 British and American English 9)Note the striking differences in pronunciation of certain words as lieutenant, schedule, etc. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-3 Differences in Stress (1)Pronunciation of longer words: British English tends to stress strongly one syllable, usually the first and hurries over the rest of the word. American English tends to put the stress on the first syllable but also to put a secondary stress on the latter syllable and pronounces the remaining syllables more distinctly. Chapter 8 British and American English (2)Different stresses on the same words Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-4 Differences in Spelling American spelling differs in small sides from British spelling. Let us make a comparison between with them. 1) 2) 3) 4) -our -or -ce -se -xion -en -in [BrE] colour honour defence licence offence connexion endorse enquire [AmE] color honor defense license offense connection indorse inquire Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-5 Differences in Vocabulary In American English there are three types of vocabulary. 1. The general vocabulary : The general vocabulary comprises the great majority of word stock which is exactly the same in both British and American English: cold,fish,hot,moon,sun,woman and many others. Chapter 8 British and American English 2. Survivals (Vestiges) of British English : To collide, which was archaic in British English, is used in American English, and then returns to British usage. Dead wrong and dead right were first used in England, then they become widespread in American, and now can be found in British English. So are the following words. Chapter 8 British and American English Mad for angry, mad is a survival of the thirteenth century English. Sick for ill, sick appeared in the ninth century and was replaced by ill in the fifteenth century. Fall for autumn, fall is also a survival of older British usage. Chapter 8 British and American English 3. The American word stock: Conservation and innovation are two major features of American English. On the one hand ,American English has preserved certain older features of the language which have disappeared from British English. A number of survivals of British English mentioned above represent conservation of the American vocabulary. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-2-6 Differences in Grammar Grammatical differences between British and American English are few and trivial. But nonnative should understand these small differences in order to use them correctly. e.g. 1) I wish I could have gotten here sooner. [AmE] I wish I could have got here sooner. [BrE] Chapter 8 British and American English 2)The new term begins on September1. [BrE] The new term begins September 1. [AmE] 3)How many brothers do you have? [AmE] How many brothers have you? [BrE] Chapter 8 British and American English 4) I feel guilty because I haven’t written her lately. [AmE] I feel guilty because I haven’t written to her lately. [BrE] 5) I’d like to talk with Mr. Johns or Mr. Smith. [AmE] I’d like to talk to Mr. Johns or Mr. Smith. [BrE] Chapter 8 British and American English 6) I enclosed some photographs in my letter. [AmE] I enclosed some photographs with my letter. [BrE] 7) I lived on Washington Street. [AmE] I lived in King Street. [BrE] 8) The house needs painting. It’s in bad conditions. [AmE] The house needs painting. It’s in a bad conditions. [BrE] Chapter 8 British and American English 8-3-1 A Comparison Between Webster’s Pronunciation Symbols (WPS) and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) e. g WPS\ə\=IPA/ə/: The symbol \ə\ is found in unstressed syllables as in banana, collide, about, etc. banana \bə-’na-nə\=∕bə’na:nə;bə’nænə∕ collide \kə-’lid\=∕ kə’ laid;kə’laid ∕ about \ə-’ bət\=/ə’ bʌt; ə’ bʌt/ Chapter 8 British and American English The neutral vowel \ə\may be stood for any of the letters a,e,I,o,u,y and many combination of letters. These unstressed vowels are pronounced as \ə\=/ə/ in American and British speech. Chapter 8 British and American English 8-3-2 British and American English in the Future What will be the future tendency in the development of British English and American English? British English and American English will be one language, not two different languages. British English and American English will be two major varieties of one language.