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20.1 Fragrances and Odors 951
20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique 952
20.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds
Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen
954
20.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
960
20.5 Alkenes and Alkynes 964
20.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions 969
20.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 972
20.8 Functional Groups 975
20.9 Alcohols 976
20.10 Aldehydes and Ketones 978
20.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 981
20.12 Ethers 983
20.13 Amines 984
20.14 Polymers 985
Key Learning Outcomes 990
Lecture Presentation
Chapter 20
Organic
Chemistry
Sherril Soman
Grand Valley State University
http://ocw.aca.ntu.edu.tw/ntuocw/index.php/ocw/cou/099S125/11
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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20.1 Fragrances and Odors
• Our sense of smell helps us identify food, people,
and other organisms, and alerts us to dangers such
as polluted air or spoiled food.
• Odorants must be volatile.
• However, many volatile substances have no
scent at all.
• Most common smells are caused by
organic molecules.
• The study of compounds containing carbon
combined with one or more of the elements
hydrogen(H), nitrogen(N), oxygen(O), and sulfur(S),
including their properties and their reactions, is
known as organic chemistry.
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Pg.126 背起來
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20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique
• Carbon atoms can do some unique things
that other atoms cannot.
• Carbon can bond to as many as four
other atoms.
• Bonds to carbon are very strong and
nonreactive.
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What’s So Special About Carbon?
• Carbon atoms can attach together in
long chains.
• Carbon atoms can attach together to
form rings.
• Carbon atoms can form single, double,
or triple bonds.
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20.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing
Only Carbon and Hydrogen
• Hydrocarbons contain only C and H.
– Aliphatic or aromatic
• Insoluble in water
– No polar bonds to attract water molecules
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons
– Saturated or unsaturated aliphatics
• Saturated = alkanes; unsaturated = alkenes or
alkynes
– May be chains or rings
– Chains may be straight or branched.
• Aromatic hydrocarbons
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Saturated
Unsaturated
芳香族
脂肪族
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The most prevalent
example is benzene.
C6H6
背起來
烷烴
Saturated
烯類
Unsaturated
炔類
Unsaturated
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Formulas
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Example 20.1 Writing Structural Formulas for Hydrocarbons
Write the structural formulas and carbon skeleton formulas for the five isomers of C6H14 (hexane).
Solution
To start, draw the carbon backbone of the straight-chain isomer.
Next, determine the carbon backbone structure of the other isomers by arranging the carbon atoms in four other
unique ways.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.1 Writing Structural Formulas for Hydrocarbons
Continued
Fill in all the hydrogen atoms so that each carbon forms four bonds.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.1 Writing Structural Formulas for Hydrocarbons
Continued
Write the carbon skeleton formulas by using lines to represent each carbon–carbon bond. Remember that each end
or bend represents a carbon atom.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.1 Writing Structural Formulas for Hydrocarbons
Continued
For Practice 20.1
Write the structural formulas and carbon skeleton formulas for the three isomers of C5H12 (pentane).
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Isomerism
• Isomers are different molecules with the
same molecular formula.
• Structural isomers are isomers that
have a different pattern of atom
attachment.
– Also known as constitutional isomers
• Stereoisomers are isomers with the
same pattern of atom attachments, but
the atoms have a different spatial
orientation.
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Stereoisomers
• Stereoisomers are different molecules
whose atoms are connected in the same
order, but with a different spatial direction.
• Optical isomers are stereoisomers that
are nonsuperimposable mirror images of
each other.
• Geometric isomers are stereoisomers
that are not optical isomers.
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A Review of Isomerism 背起來,抄起來
異構物
構造異構物
結構異構物
立體異構物
光學異構物
Structural isomers
are isomers that have a different
pattern of atom attachment.
Also known as constitutional
isomers
醛、酮
醇、醚
酸、酯
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Optical isomers
非光學異構物，幾何異構物
Geometric isomers
(R) and (S)
racemic mixture 組態異構物
Next page
(R,R) and (R,S)
順式─反式異構物
A Brief Review of Isomerism
• Diastereomers
– Cis-trans isomers are non-mirror-image
stereoisomers
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Nonsuperimposable Mirror Images
Optical Isomers of 3-Methylhexane
The mirror image cannot be rotated so all its atoms
align with the same atoms of the original molecule.
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Chirality 掌性，碳接4個不同的取代基
• Any molecule with a nonsuperimposable
mirror image is said to be chiral.
• Any carbon with four different substituents
will be a chiral center.
• A pair of nonsuperimposable mirror
images are called a pair of enantiomers.
(Optical Isomers)
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How many of chiral center ?
• 找一個有很多chiral center的example，下面的有
兩個掌性中心
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Plane Polarized Light
• Light that has been filtered so that only
those waves traveling in a single plane are
allowed through
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Optical Activity
• Enantiomers have all the same physical
properties except one—the direction they
rotate the plane of plane-polarized light
– Each one of the enantiomers will rotate the plane the
same amount, but in opposite directions.
– Dextrorotatory = rotates the plane to the right
– Levorotatory = rotates the plane to the left
20-3
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Mixtures of Enantiomers
• An equimolar mixture of a pair of
enantiomers is called a racemic mixture.
• Because half the molecules are rotating the
plane to the left and the other half are
rotating it to the right, the rotations cancel,
and the racemic mixture does not rotate
the plane.
• If the mixture is nonracemic, the amount of
rotation can be used to determine the
percentages of each enantiomer in the
mixture.
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Chemical Behavior of Enantiomers
• A pair of enantiomers will have the same
chemical reactivity in a nonchiral
environment.
• But in a chiral environment they may exhibit
different behaviors.
– Enzyme selection of one enantiomer of a pair
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20.4 Alkanes : Saturated Hydrocarbons
•
•
•
•
•
Also know as paraffins
Aliphatic
General formula CnH2n+2 for chains
Very unreactive
Come in chains or/and rings
– CH3 groups at ends of chains, CH2 groups
in the middle
• Saturated
• Branched or unbranched
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一定要背
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Physical Properties of n–Alkanes
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Naming
• Each name consists of three parts
–
Prefix 字首
• Indicates position, number, and type of branches
• Indicates position, number, and type of each
functional group
–
Parent 中心
• Indicates the length of the longest carbon chain or ring
–
Suffix 字尾
• Indicates the type of hydrocarbon
o -ane, -ene, -yne
• Certain functional groups
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Naming Alkanes
Systematic nomenclature devised by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
•
Name has four parts
1.
2.
3.
4.
Prefix which specifies the location of functional groups and
other substituents in the molecule
Parent selects the main part of the molecule and tells the
number of carbon atoms
Locant gives location of primary functional group
Suffix identifies functional group family it belongs to
Naming Alkanes
Alkanes can be named by following four steps
1. Find the parent hydrocarbon
a)
Find the longest continuing chain of carbon atoms in the
molecule
b)
If two different chains of equal length are present, choose the
one with the larger number of branch points as the parent
Naming Alkanes
2.
Number the atoms in the parent chain
a)
Number each carbon atom in the parent chain beginning at
end nearer the first branch point
b)
If there is a branching point at an equal distance from both
ends of the parent chain, begin numbering at the end nearer
the second branch point
Naming Alkanes
3.
Identify and number the substituents
a)
Assign a number (called the locant) to each substituent to locate
its point of attachment to the parent chain
b)
If there are two substituents on the same carbon, give them both
the same number. There must be as many numbers in the name
as there are substituents
Naming Alkanes
Write the name as a single word
4.
•
•
•
If two or more different substituents are present write them in
alphabetical order
If two or more identical substituents are present, use the
multiplier prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so forth
Do not use these prefixes when alphabetizing
Naming Alkanes
More examples
Naming Alkanes
Some alkanes have nonsystematic, common names
1.
Three-carbon alkyl group
2.
Four-carbon alkyl groups
3.
Five-carbon alkyl groups
Naming Alkanes
Some compounds can be named with IUPAC rules or
with common names
Naming Alkanes
Alphabetization in the naming of alkanes
• Nonhyphenated prefix iso- is considered part
of the alkyl-group name when alphabetizing
•
Isopropyl and isobutyl are listed alphabetically
under i
• The hyphenated and italicized prefixes sec-
and tert- are not considered part of the alkylgroup name when alphabetizing
•
Sec-butyl and tert-butyl are listed alphabetically
under b
Naming Alkanes
1. Find the longest continuous carbon chain. 找最長的鏈
2. Number the chain in the direction that gives the
substituent as low a number as possible.數字越小越好
3. Name branches as alkyl groups.
− Locate each branch by preceding its name with
the carbon number on the chain.
4. List branches alphabetically. 按照英文字母順序
− Do not count n-, sec-, t-, count iso
5. Use prefix if more than one of same group present.
− “Di-(2),” “tri-(3),” “tetra-(4),” “penta-(5),” “hexa(6)”
− Do not count in alphabetizing
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2. Number the chain in the direction that gives the
substituent as low a number as possible.數字越小越好
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Prefixes, 一定要背
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Alkyl Groups
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Example 20.2 Naming Alkanes
Name this alkane.
Procedure For…
Naming Alkanes
Solution
Step 1
Count the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous
carbon chain to determine the base name of the compound.
Locate the prefix corresponding to this number of atoms in
Table 20.5 and add the ending -ane to form the base name.
This compound has five carbon atoms in its longest
continuous chain.
The correct prefix from Table 20.5 is pent-. The base name
is pentane.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.2 Naming Alkanes
Continued
Step 2
Consider every branch from the base chain
to be a substituent. Name each substituent
according to Table 20.6.
This compound has one substituent named ethyl.
Step 3
Beginning with the end closest to the branching, number the base chain and assign a number to each
substituent. (If two substituents occur at equal distances from each end, go to the next substituent to
determine from which end to start numbering.)
Number the base chain as follows:
Assign the number 3 to the ethyl substituent.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.2 Naming Alkanes
Continued
Step 4
Write the name of the compound in the following format:
(substituent number)-(substituent name)(base name)
If there are two or more substituents, give each one a number and list them alphabetically with hyphens
between words and numbers.
The name of the compound is:
3-ethylpentane
Step 5
If a compound has two or more identical substituents, indicate the number of identical substituents
with the prefix di- (2), tri- (3), or tetra- (4) before the substituent’s name. Separate the numbers
indicating the positions of the substituents relative to each other with a comma. Do not take the
prefixes into account when alphabetizing.
Does not apply to this compound.
For Practice 20.2
Name this alkane.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.3 Naming Alkanes
Name this alkane.
Procedure For…
Naming Alkanes
Solution
Step 1
Count the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous
carbon chain to determine the base name of the compound.
Locate the prefix corresponding to this number of atoms in
Table 20.5 and add the ending -ane to form the base name.
This compound has eight carbon atoms in its longest
continuous chain.
The correct prefix from Table 20.5 is oct-. The base
name is octane.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.3 Naming Alkanes
Continued
Step 2
Consider every branch from the base chain
to be a substituent. Name each substituent
according to Table 20.6.
This compound has one substituent named ethyl and
two named methyl.
Step 3
Beginning with the end closest to the branching, number the base chain and assign a number to each
substituent. (If two substituents occur at equal distances from each end, go to the next substituent to
determine from which end to start numbering.)
Number the base chain as follows:
Assign the number 4 to the ethyl substituent and the numbers 2 and 7 to the two methyl substituents.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Example 20.3 Naming Alkanes
Continued
Step 4
Write the name of the compound in the following format:
(substituent number)-(substituent name)(base name)
If there are two or more substituents, give each one a number and list them alphabetically with hyphens
between words and numbers.
The basic form of the name of the compound is:
4-ethyl-2,7-methyloctane
List ethyl before methyl because substituents are listed in alphabetical order.
Step 5
If a compound has two or more identical substituents, indicate the number of identical substituents
with the prefix di- (2), tri- (3), or tetra- (4) before the substituent’s name. Separate the numbers
indicating the positions of the substituents relative to each other with a comma. Do not take the
prefixes into account when alphabetizing.
This compound has two methyl substituents; therefore, the name of the compound is:
4-ethyl-2,7-dimethyloctane
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Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.3 Naming Alkanes
Continued
For Practice 20.3
Name this alkane.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.4 Naming Alkanes
Name this alkane.
Solution
Step 1
The longest continuous carbon chain has five atoms. Therefore, the base name is pentane.
Step 2
This compound has two substituents, both of which are named methyl.
Step 3
Since both substituents are equidistant from the ends, it does not matter from which end you start
numbering.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.4 Naming Alkanes
Continued
Step 4, 5
Use the general form for the name:
(substituent number)-(substituent name)(base name)
Because this compound contains two identical substituents, step 5 from the naming procedure
applies and you use the prefix di-. Indicate the position of each substituent with a number separated
by a comma.
2,4-dimethylpentane
For Practice 20.4
Name this alkane.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
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20.5 Alkenes and Alkynes
Alkenes
• Also known as olefins
• Aliphatic, unsaturated
– C═C double bonds
• Formula for one double bond = CnH2n.
– Subtract 2 H from alkane for each
double bond.
• Trigonal shape around C
– Flat
• Polyunsaturated = many double bonds
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Alkenes
ethene = ethylene
H
H
C C
H
H
propene = propylene
H
H
C C
H
CH3
Produced by ripening fruit
Used to make polyethylene
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Used to make polypropylene
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Alkynes
•
•
•
•
Welding torches
burn ethyne in
pure oxygen to
produce the very
hot flame
needed for
Also known as acetylenes
Aliphatic, unsaturated
melting metals.
C≡C triple bond
Formula for one triple bond = CnH2n − 2.
– Subtract 4 H from alkane for each triple bond.
• Linear shape
• Internal alkynes have both triple bond
carbons attached to C.
• Terminal alkynes have one carbon
attached to H.
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Alkynes
Ethyne = acetylene
Used in welding torches
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Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
• Change suffix on main name from -ane to
-ene for base name of alkene, or to -yne
for the base name of the alkyne.
• Number chain from end closest to
multiple bond.
• Number in front of main name indicates
first carbon of multiple bond.
20.5
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Example 20.5 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Name each compound.
a.
b.
Solution
a. Step 1
The longest continuous carbon chain containing the double bond has six carbon atoms. The base name
is therefore hexene.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.5 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Continued
Step 2
The two substituents are both methyl.
Step 3
One of the exceptions listed previously states that, in naming alkenes, you should number the chain
so that the double bond has the lowest number. In this case, the double bond is equidistant from the
ends. Assign the double bond the number 3. The two methyl groups are then at positions 3 and 4.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.5 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Continued
Step 4, 5
Use the general form for the name:
(substituent number)-(substituent name)(base name)
Because this compound contains two identical substituents, step 5 of the naming procedure applies.
Use the prefix di-. In addition, indicate the position of each substituent with a number separated by a
comma. Because this compound is an alkene, specify the position of the double bond, isolated by
hyphens, just before the base name.
3,4-dimethyl-3-hexene
b. Step 1
The longest continuous carbon chain containing the triple bond is five carbon atoms long; therefore,
the base name is pentyne.
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Example 20.5 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Continued
Step 2
There are two substituents; one is a methyl group and the other an isopropyl group.
Step 3
Number the base chain, giving the triple bond the lowest number (1). Assign the isopropyl and methyl
groups the numbers 3 and 4, respectively.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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Example 20.5 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Continued
Step 4
Use the general form for the name:
(substituent number)-(substituent name)(base name)
Since there are two substituents, list both of them in alphabetical order.
Since this compound is an alkyne, specify the position of the triple bond with a number isolated by
hyphens just before the base name.
3-isopropyl-4-methyl-1-pentyne
For Practice 20.5
Name each compound.
a.
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b.
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Geometric Isomerism
• Because the rotation around a double bond
is highly restricted, you will have different
molecules if groups have different spatial
orientation about the double bond.
– Stereoisomers
• This is often called cis–trans isomerism.
• When groups on the doubly bonded carbons
are cis, they are on the same side of the
double bond.
• When groups on the doubly bonded carbons
are trans, they are on opposite sides.
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Cis–Trans Isomerism
Geometric Isomerism
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20.6 Reactions of Hydrocarbons
• All hydrocarbons undergo combustion.
• Combustion is always exothermic.
– About 90% of U.S. energy generated by
combustion
CH3CH2CH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
CH2═CHCH2CH3(g) + 6 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
CH≡CCH3(g) + 4 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
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Chemical Energy
• Burning hydrocarbons releases heat
and light energy.
– Combustion
• Alkane + oxygen → carbon dioxide
+ water
• Larger alkane, more heat released
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Alkane Reactions
• Substitution 取代反應
– Replace H with a halogen atom.
– Initiated by addition of energy in the form of heat
or ultraviolet light
• To start breaking bonds
– Generally get multiple products with multiple
substitutions
– Methane + chlorine  chloromethane + HCl
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Alkene and Alkyne Reactions: Addition
• Adding a molecule across the multiple bond
• Hydrogenation = adding H2
– Converts unsaturated molecule to saturated
– Alkene or alkyne + H2 → alkane
– Generally requires a catalyst
• Halogenation = adding X2
• Hydrohalogenation = adding HX
– HX is polar.
– When adding a polar reagent to a double or triple
bond, the positive part attaches to the carbon with
the most H’s.
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Addition Reactions 加成反應
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Example 20.6 Alkene Addition Reactions
Determine the products of the reactions.
a.
b.
Solution
a. The reaction of 1-butene with bromine is an example of a symmetric addition. The bromine adds across the double
bond and each carbon forms a single bond to a bromine atom.
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Example 20.6 Alkene Addition Reactions
Continued
b. The reaction of 1-butene with hydrogen bromide is an example of an unsymmetrical addition. Apply
Markovnikov’s rule to determine which carbon the hydrogen bonds with and which carbon the bromine atom
bonds with. Markovnikov’s rule predicts that the hydrogen bonds to the end carbon in this case.
For Practice 20.6
Determine the products of the reactions.
a.
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b.
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20.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Contain benzene ring structure
• Even though they are often drawn with C═C,
they do not behave like alkenes.
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Resonance Hybrid
• The true structure of benzene is a
resonance hybrid of two structures.
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Naming Monosubstituted Benzene
Derivatives
• (Name of substituent)benzene
– Halogen substituent = change ending to “o”
• Or name of a common derivative
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Naming Benzene as a Substituent
• When the benzene ring is not the base
name, it is called a phenyl group.
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Naming Disubstituted: Benzene Derivatives
• Number the ring starting at attachment for
first substituent, and then move toward the
second.
– Order substituents alphabetically.
– Use “di-” if both substituents are the same.
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Naming Disubstituted: Benzene Derivatives
• Alternatively, use relative position prefix.
– Ortho- = 1,2; meta- = 1,3; para- = 1,4
2-chlorotoluene
3-chlorotoluene
4-chlorotoluene
ortho-chlorotoluene meta-chlorotoluene para-chlorotoluene
o-chlorotoluene
m-chlorotoluene p-chlorotoluene
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Contain multiple benzene rings fused
together
– Fusing = sharing a common bond
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**Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
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20.8 Functional Groups
• Other organic compounds are hydrocarbons
in which functional groups have been
substituted for hydrogens.
• A functional group is a group of atoms that
shows a characteristic influence on the
properties of the molecule.
– Generally, the reactions that a compound will
perform are determined by what functional
groups it has.
– Because the kind of hydrocarbon chain is
irrelevant to the reactions, it may be indicated by
the general symbol.
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一定要背
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20.9 Alcohols
• R—OH
• Ethanol = CH3CH2OH
– Grain alcohol = fermentation of sugars
in grains
– Alcoholic beverages
• Proof number = 2 times percentage of
alcohol
– Gasohol
• Isopropyl alcohol = (CH3)2CHOH
– 2-propanol
– Rubbing alcohol
– Poisonous
• Methanol = CH3OH
– Wood alcohol = thermolysis of wood
– Paint solvent
– Poisonous
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Naming Alcohols
• Main chain contains OH.
• Number main chain from end closest to OH.
• Give base name -ol ending and place
number of C on chain where OH attached
in front.
• Name as hydroxy group if higher
precedence group present.
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Reactions of Alcohols
Nucleophilic substitution 取代
CH3─OH + HCl → CH3Cl + H2O
Acid catalyzed elimination (dehydration) 去水
H SO
CH3─ CH2OH → CH2═CH2 + H2O
2
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4
Reactions of Alcohols
Oxidation 氧化
−2 H
−2 H
CH3CH2OH → CH3CHO → CH3COOH
A common oxidizing agent is Na2Cr2O7.
Alcohols with very active metals 金屬
2 CH3─OH + 2 K → 2 CH3O−K+ + H2
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有機反應中比較重要的，背起來
Important: Reactions of Alcohols
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Example 20.7 Alcohol Reactions
Determine the type of reaction (substitution, dehydration, oxidation, or reaction with an active metal) that occurs
in each case, and write formulas for the products.
a.
b.
Solution
a. An alcohol reacting with an acid is an example of a substitution reaction. The product of the substitution reaction
is a halogenated hydrocarbon and water.
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Example 20.7 Alcohol Reactions
Continued
Solution
b. An alcohol in solution with sodium dichromate and acid undergoes an oxidation reaction. The product of the
oxidation reaction is a carboxylic acid functional group. (We discuss carboxylic acid functional groups in detail
in Section 20.11.)
For Practice 20.7
Determine the type of reaction (substitution, dehydration, oxidation, or reaction with an active metal) that occurs in
each case, and write formulas for the products.
a.
b.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition
Nivaldo J. Tro
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20.10 Aldehydes and Ketones
• Contain the carbonyl group
– Aldehydes = at least 1 side H
– Ketones = both sides R groups
• Many aldehydes and ketones
have pleasant tastes and aromas.
• Some are pheromones.
• Formaldehyde = H2C=O
– Pungent gas
– Formalin = a preservative
– Wood smoke, carcinogenic
• Acetone = CH3C(=O)CH3
– Nail-polish remover
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Ketone Odors and Flavors
• Acetophenone = pistachio
• Carvone = spearmint
• Ionone = raspberries
• Muscone = musk
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Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
• Main chain contains C═O.
– Unless COOH present
• Number main chain from end closest to C═O.
• For aldehydes, give base name -al ending.
– Always on C1
• For ketones, give base name -one ending and
place number of C on chain where C═O
attached in front.
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Reactions
• Aldehydes and ketones are generally
synthesized by the oxidation of alcohols.
• Therefore, reduction of an aldehyde or
ketone results in an alcohol.
• Common reducing agents are H2 with a Ni
catalyst, NaBH4, and LiAlH4.
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Reactions
• Aldehydes and ketones are generally
synthesized by the oxidation of alcohols.
• Therefore, reduction of an aldehyde or
ketone results in an alcohol.
• Common reducing agents are H2 with a Ni
catalyst, NaBH4, and LiAlH4.
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Reactions
• Aldehydes and ketones are generally
synthesized by the oxidation of alcohols.
• Therefore, reduction of an aldehyde or
ketone results in an alcohol.
• Common reducing agents are H2 with a Ni
catalyst, NaBH4, and LiAlH4.
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Carbonyl Group
C═O group is highly polar.
Many reactions involve addition across C═O,
with positive part attached to O.
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Addition to C═O
Polar molecules add across the
C═O, with the positive part attaching
to O.
δ+ δ−
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20.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
Carboxylic Acids
•
•
•
•
RCOOH
Sour tasting
Weak acids
Citric acid
Found in citrus fruit
• Ethanoic acid = acetic acid
Vinegar
• Methanoic acid = formic acid
Insect bites and stings
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Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids
• Made by the oxidation of aldehydes and
alcohols.
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Naming Carboxylic Acids
• Carboxylic acid group always on end of
main chain
– Has highest naming precedence of functional
groups
• C of group always C1
– Position not indicated in name
• Change ending to -oic acid
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Examples of Naming Carboxylic Acids
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Esters
• R—COO—R
• Sweet odor
• Made by reacting carboxylic acid with an
alcohol
RaCOOH + RbOH ⇔ RaCOORb + H2O
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Naming Esters
• Carboxylic acid group always on end of
main chain
– Unless carboxylic acid group present
• C of ester group on C1
– Position not indicated in name
• Begin name with alkyl group attached to O.
• Name main chain with -oate ending.
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Condensation Reactions
• A condensation reaction is any organic
reaction driven by the removal of a small
molecule, such as water.
• Esters are made by the condensation
reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.

The reaction is acid catalyzed.
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Condensation Reactions
• A condensation reaction is any organic
reaction driven by the removal of a small
molecule, such as water.
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Condensation Reactions 縮合反應
• A condensation reaction is any organic
reaction driven by the removal of a small
molecule, such as water.
• Acid anhydrides are made by the
condensation reaction between to
carboxylic acid molecules.

The reaction is driven by heat.
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Synthesis of Aspirin
(Acetylsalicylic Acid)
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20.12 Ethers
• Ethers have the general formula ROR.
• The two R groups may be different or
identical.
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Ethers
• Diethyl ether is the most common ether.
• It is useful as a laboratory solvent and can
dissolve many organic compounds.
• It has a low boiling point.
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20.13 Amines
•
•
•
•
•
N containing organic molecules
Very bad smelling
Form when proteins decompose
Organic bases
Name alkyl groups attached to the N, then
add -amine to the end.
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Amines
• Many amines are biologically active.
– Dopamine – a neurotransmitter
– Epinephrine – an adrenal hormone
– Pyridoxine – vitamin B6
• Alkaloids are plant products that are
alkaline and biologically active.
– Toxic
– Coniine from hemlock
– Cocaine from coca leaves
– Nicotine from tobacco leaves
– Mescaline from peyote cactus
– Morphine from opium poppies
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Amine Reactions
• Weak bases
– React with strong acids to form ammonium salts
RNH2 + HCl → RNH3+Cl−
• React with carboxylic acids in a
condensation reaction to form amides
RCOOH + H—NHR‘⇔ RCONHR’ + H2O
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20.14 Polymers
• Polymers are very large molecules made by
repeated linking together of small molecules.
– Monomers
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Polymers
• Natural polymers are polymers found in both
the living and nonliving environment.
• Modified natural polymers are natural
polymers that have been chemically altered.
• Synthetic polymers are polymers made in a
lab from one, two, or three small molecules
linked in a repeating pattern.
– Plastics, elastomers (rubber), fabrics, adhesives
• Composites are materials made of polymers
mixed with various additives.
– Additives such as graphite, glass, metallic flakes
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Natural Polymers
• Polysaccharides – polymers made of repeating small
sugar molecule units
– Cellulose (cotton)
– Starch
• Proteins – polymers made of repeating amino acid units
• Nucleic acids (DNA) – polymers made of repeating
nucleotide units
• Natural latex rubber – polyisoprene
• Shellac – a resin secreted by lac bugs
• Gutta-percha – a polyisoprene latex from the sap of the
gutta-percha plant
– Used to fill space for root canal
• Amber, lignin, pine rosin – resins from trees
• Asphalt – polymeric petroleum
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Modified Natural Polymers
• Cellulose acetate – an ester of cellulose and
acetic acid
– Rayon
– Film
• Vulcanized rubber – latex rubber hardened by
cross-linking with sulfur
• Nitrocellulose – an ester of cellulose with
nitric acid
– Gun cotton
– Celluloid
• Ping-Pong™ balls
• Casein – a polymer of the protein casein
made by treating cow’s milk with acid
– Buttons, moldings, adhesives
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Polymerization
• Polymerization is the process of linking the
monomer units together.
• There are two processes by which
polymerization may proceed—addition
polymerization and condensation
polymerization.
• Monomer units may link head to tail, or head
to head, or tail to tail during polymerization.
– Head to tail most common
– Regular pattern gives stronger attractions between
chains than random arrangements
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http://hsmateri
al.moe.edu.tw/
file/che/che38/
LRNViewer.ht
m
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Addition Polymerization加成聚合
• Monomers add to the growing chain in
such a manner that all the atoms in the
original monomer wind up in the chain.
– No other side products formed; no atoms
eliminated
• First monomer must “open” to start
reaction.
– Done with heat, or the addition of an initiator
• The process is a chain reaction.
– Each added unit ready to add another
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Condensation Polymerization 縮合聚合
• Monomer units are joined by removing
small molecules from the combining units.
– Polyesters, polyamides lose water
• No initiator is needed.
• The process is a chain reaction.
• Each monomer has two reactive ends, so
the chain can grow in two directions.
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• END
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Characteristics of Plastics
•
•
•
•
•
Transparent or translucent
Chemical resistance
Thermal and electrical insulators
Low density
Varying strengths
– Kevlar
• Mold or extrude
• Elasticity
– Regain original shape if quick stress applied
• Foamed
• Tend to soften when heated, rather than
quickly melt
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What Is Organic Chemistry?
• Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry
that focuses on compounds that contain
carbon.
– Except CO, CO2, carbonates, and carbides
• Even though organic compounds only contain
a few elements, the unique ways carbon
atoms can attach together to form molecules
leads to millions of different organic
compounds.
20-1
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The Chemistry of Life
• Life as we know it is because of organic
chemistry.
• Organic molecules can be very large and
complex.
• It is this complexity of large organic molecules
that allows the complex functions of the cells
to occur.
20-1
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Differences Between Organic and Inorganic
Compounds
• Organic compounds are easily decomposed
into simpler substances by heating, but
inorganic substances are not.
• Inorganic compounds were readily
synthesized in the lab, but synthesis of
organic compounds in the lab is hard.
20-1
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What’s Special About Organic Compounds?
• Organic compounds tend to be molecular.
• They are mainly composed of just six
nonmetallic elements.
– C, H, O, N, S, and P
• Compounds are found in all three states.
– Solids, liquids, and gases
– Solids tend to have low melting points
• Solubility in water varies depending on
which of the other elements are attached to
C and how many there are.
– CH3OH is miscible with water; C10H21OH is
insoluble.
20-1
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Formulas
• Molecular formulas show the kinds of
atoms in the molecule, but they do not
show how they are attached.
• Structural formulas show you the
attachment pattern in the molecule.
• Models not only show you the attachment
pattern, but give you an idea about the
shape of the molecule.
20-3
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Condensed Structural Formulas
• Attached atoms listed in order
– Central atom with attached atoms
• Follow normal bonding patterns
– Use to determine position of multiple bonds
• () used to indicate more than one identical
group attached to same previous central atom
–
Unless () group is listed first, in which case
attached to next central atom
20-3
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Uses of Hydrocarbons
20-3
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Uses of Hydrocarbons
20-3
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Uses of Hydrocarbons
20-3
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Saturated Hydrocarbons
• A saturated hydrocarbon has all C─C
single bonds.
– It is saturated with hydrogens.
• Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are called
alkanes.
• Chain alkanes have the general
formula CnH2n+2.
• Ring alkanes have all C─C single bonds, but
have fewer hydrogens than a chain with the
same number of carbons.
20-3
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Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more
C═C double bonds or C≡C triple bonds.
• Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons that
contain C═C are called alkenes.
– The general formula of a monounsaturated chain alkene
is CnH2n.
– Remove two more H for each additional double bond.
• Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons that
contain C≡C are called alkynes.
– The general formula of an alkyne with one triple bond
is CnH2n−2.
– Remove four more H for each additional triple bond.
20-3
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Physical Properties of Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons
• Boiling points and melting points increase
as the size of the molecule increases.
– Nonpolar molecules
– Main attractive forces are dispersion forces
• Less dense than water
• Insoluble in water
20-3
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Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Aromatic hydrocarbons contain a ring
structure that seems to have C═C, but
doesn’t behave that way.
• The most prevalent example is benzene.
– C6H6
– Other compounds have the benzene ring
with other groups substituted for some of the
hydrogens.
20-3
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Carbon Skeleton Formulas
• Each angle, and beginning and end,
represent a C atom.
• H omitted on C
– Included on functional groups
• Multiple bonds indicated
– Double line is double bond; triple line is
triple bond
20-3
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Structural Isomers of C4H10
Butane, BP = 0
°C
Isobutane, BP = −12
°C
20-3
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Rotation about a Bond Is Not Isomerism
20-3
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Possible Structural Isomers
20-3
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Physical Properties of Alkenes
• Pi bond electrons not held as tight as
sigma; therefore, alkenes are more
polarizable than alkanes.
• Cis generally more polar than trans
• Trans lower boiling point
• More carbon groups attached to the double
bond = higher boiling point.
– For equal numbers of C
• Densities similar to alkanes
• Trans higher melting point than cis
– Molecules are more symmetrical and pack better.
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20.5
Physical Properties of Alkynes
• Higher boiling points than similar sized
alkenes
– Similar size = same number of carbons
– More pi bond = more polarization = higher boiling point
• Slightly higher densities than similar alkenes
• There are no alkyne cis or trans isomers.
• Internal alkynes have higher boiling points
than terminal alkynes.
– With the same number of C
20.5
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