Download Grammar_and_Usage_Student_Help_Desk

Grammar and Usage Student Help Desk
The Sentence at a Glance – A sentence has two parts: a complete subject and a
complete predicate.
Large cities offer residents many distractions.
Complete subject
Complete predicate
1. Subjects and Predicates
 Complete subject – MOST CITIES have a downtown area.
 Simple subject – cities
 Complete predicate – Skyscrapers TOWER OVER PEDESTRIANS.
 Simple predicate – tower
2. Complements
Linking verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, feel, smell, taste…)
 Predicate noun – This is my NEIGHBORHOOD. (renames or defines
the subject)
 Predicate adjective – The park is PEACEFUL. (describes the subject)
Action verbs
 Direct object – I ride my BIKE downtown. (complements the verb’s
action)
 Indirect object – A map shows ME the route. (tells to whom/what or
for whom/what the action is done)
3. Kinds of sentences
 Declarative – I am going to the museum. (statement)
 Interrogative – Will it be interesting? (asks a question)
 Imperative – (You) Come with me. (command)
 Exclamatory – The show was fascinating! (exclaims)
Why do sentences matter in writing? Sentences are the foundations
of your writing, and it is imperative that complete and correct
sentences are used when writing.
Notes:
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8 Parts of Speech
1. A NOUN names a person, place, thing, or idea. There are several ways to classify
nouns.
BENJAMIN BANNEKER studied STARS through a SKYLIGHT near
proper noun
common
compound
his PARENTS’ FARM.
possessive common
o Common noun – general name for person, place, thing, or idea –
not capitalized
o Proper noun – specific name for a person, place, thing, or idea –
always capitalized
Common:
Proper:
astronaut
Sally Ride
planet
Jupiter
mission
Apollo 11
o Concrete noun – names a thing that can be seen, heard, smelled,
touched, or tasted.
The ASTRONAUTS collected ROCKS from the MOON.
o Abstract noun – names an idea, feeling, quality, or characteristic.
Examples include exploration, excitement, lightness, and courage.
o Collective nouns – names a group of people or animals.
Examples include community, audience, panel, crowd, class,
government, staff, colony, pack, herd, flock.

Compound nouns – a noun made up of two or more words
Examples include post office (2 words), daughter-in-law
(hyphenated words), and railroad (combined words).
Why do nouns matter in writing? Without concrete common and
proper nouns, writing is often too vague – always be as specific as
possible!
Notes:
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2. A PRONOUN is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. Like
a noun, a pronoun can refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. The word that a
pronoun refers to is called its ANTECEDENT.
Maria was lost. SHE didn’t panic. She checked the flashlight. IT still worked.
(antecedent)
(pronoun)
(antecedent) (pronoun)
Why do pronouns matter in writing? Pronouns are often used to
make writing flow smoothly from sentence to sentence. They also
need to be used correctly as subjects or objects, in subject-verb
agreement, in pronoun – antecedent agreement, and as possessives.
Personal pronouns
Singular
Plural
1st person
I, me, my, mine
we, us, our, ours
2nd person
you, your, yours
you, your, yours
3rd
he, she, it, him,
her, it, his, hers, its
they, them, their
theirs
__
person
o Breakdown of personal pronouns
1.
Subject pronouns – use as the subject of a sentence or as a
predicate pronoun after a linking verb.
Singular
I
you
he, she, it
Plural___
we
you
they
Subject: IT got us to the moon.
Predicate Pronoun:
The greatest astronauts were THEY.
2. Object pronouns – use as a direct object, an indirect object, or
an object of a preposition.
_____Singular
me
you
him, her, it
Plural
us
you
them
3
Direct object: Bad storms scare ME.
Indirect object: I told HIM the story of Hurricane Floyd.
Object of the preposition: The storm is coming straight at US.
3. Possessive pronouns – use to show ownership or relationship.
______Singular
my, mine
your, yours
her, hers, his, its
Plural
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
The owner and HIS best friend came to the rescue.
This cat is MINE.
YOURS is all black.
**A possessive pronoun NEVER has an apostrophe.

Interrogative pronouns are used to introduce a question.
WHO – used as a subject or predicate pronoun
WHOM – used as an object
WHOSE
WHAT
WHICH

Demonstrative pronouns – points out a person, place, thing, idea
THIS, THAT – singular
THESE, THOSE – plural

Indefinite pronouns – do not refer to a specific person, place,
thing, or idea
Singular
another
anybody
anyone
anything
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
S or P?
much
neither
nobody
no one
nothing
one
somebody
someone
something
Plural
S or P
both
few
many
others
several
all
any
more
most
none
some
Singular – The girls ate all of the pizza. (one pizza)
Plural - The girls ate all of the pizzas. (several pizzas)
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NOTE: Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
The antecedent is the noun or pronoun that a pronoun replaces or
refers to. The antecedent and the pronoun can be in the same
sentence or in different sentences. They must agree in (1) number,
(2) person, and (3) gender (masculine or feminine).
o Number – singular or plural
Hopi culture, in all its forms, is alive and well. (both are singular)
Traditional members keep cattle on their farms. (both are plural)
o Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Visitors realize they can learn from other cultures. (3rd person)
**Do not use YOU with 1st and 3rd persons.
o Gender – masculine or feminine
Laura Mansfield teaches her students at Hopi High. (both are
feminine)
Notes:
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3. A VERB is a word used to express an action, a condition, or a state of being.
The two main types of verbs are action verbs and linking verbs. Both may be
accompanied by a helping verb.
Types of Verbs
o ACTION verbs tell what the subject does. The action it expresses
may be either physical or mental.
o Mental – Some people hate amusement parks.
o Physical – The coaster plunged straight down.
Action verbs may be followed by a direct object or an indirect
object.
Evel Knievel gave his fans a thrill.
IO
DO
An action verb which has a direct object is called TRANSITIVE
An action verb which does not have a direct object is called INTRANSITIVE
Why are action verbs so important in writing? They express
strong feelings and provide excitement. Note the difference:
The Cyclone is scary to me. (linking verb)
The Cyclone petrifies me. (action verb)
Avoid “dead” verbs such as run, eat, said, want, like, …. Make
your verbs VIVID!
o LINKING verbs “link or connect” a subject to a noun or
adjective which follows the linking verb (subject complement).
Predicate Noun: Paul Revere’s mount was a saddle horse.
(renames the subject)
S LV
PN
Predicate Adjective: Saddle horses are powerful (describes the
subject).
S
LV PA
is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been (the BE verbs)
feels, sounds, tastes, smells, stays, turns, looks
o HELPING verbs often assist main verbs in designating time.
is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, can, could, do, does, did, has,
have, had, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would (23)
Ex. Hannibal was winning battle after battle.
Notes:
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4. An ADJECTIVE (modifier) is a word that modifies or describes a noun or a
pronoun.
Extraordinary weather can cause strange events.
Adjective
noun
adjective noun
Kinds of Adjectives
In addition to regular adjectives, there are:
o Articles – a, an, the
A – indefinite article used before a word with a consonant
sound
An – indefinite article used before a word with a vowel sound
The – definite article
o Proper adjectives are formed from a proper noun and are
always capitalized.
A tornado destroyed the Kansas town of Coffeyville.
o Demonstrative adjectives – This, that, these, and those are
pronouns that can often be used as adjectives – This cartoon..
o Possessive adjectives – My, our, your, her, his, its, and their are
possessive pronouns that may be used as adjectives – His hat
o Indefinite adjectives - All, each, both, few, most, and some are
pronouns that may be used as adjectives – Both parents…
o Nouns as adjectives – Nouns may be used as adjectives when
placed in front of a noun – crime scene, cup holder
Note: An adjective is located right next to the word it modifies unless
the adjective follows a linking verb: The lightning was explosive.
adjective
Why are adjectives so important in writing? They bring a story
to life and provide exciting detail. Avoid dead adjectives such
as good, bad, nice, pretty, long, short……The Thesaurus is a
powerful tool when looking for exhilarating adjectives.
Notes:
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5. An ADVERB is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Teenagers often make a unique impression. (often modifies the verb make)
They wear very creative clothing. (very modifies the adjective creative)
They nearly always have their own way of talking. (nearly modifies the
adverb always)
Adverbs answer HOW?, WHEN?, WHERE?, or TO WHAT EXTENT?.
Adverbs can appear in several different positions.
Shari completed the exam quickly.
Shari quickly completed the exam.
Quickly, Shari completed the exam.
Intensifiers: Adverbs that modify adjectives or other adverbs. They are
usually placed directly before the word they modify. Intensifiers usually
answer the question to what extent.
Almost
Really
extremely
especially
quite
nearly
so
too
usually
very
quite
barely
Many adverbs end in –LY – quietly, silently, beautifully, graciously
Negative words such as no, not, and never are adverbs.
Why do adverbs matter in writing? They add information that
makes verbs clearer and more specific.
Notes:
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6. A PREPOSITION is a word that shows a relationship between a noun or
pronoun and some other word in the sentence.
o It is the first word in a prepositional phrase.
o Often reveals a “place in space.” (around, by, next to, beyond)
o May be compound (instead of, in place of, because of)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE – a group of words that begins with a
preposition, ends with a noun or pronoun, and is used as an adjective or
an adverb.
o Adjective prepositional phrase:
Robots perform several jobs in the automobile industry.
(describes the noun jobs)
**Must come next to the noun/pronoun it modifies.
o Adverb prepositional phrase:
Industrial robots operate from fixed positions.
(describes the verb operate)
**May be placed anywhere in the sentence.
Common prepositions
About
Above
Across
After
Against
Along
Among
Around
As
At
Before
Behind
Below
Beneath
Beside
Between
Beyond
By
Despite
Down
During
Except
For
From
In
Inside
Into
Like
Near
Of
Off
On
Out
Over
Past
through
To
toward
under
until
up
With
within
without
Notes:
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7. A CONJUNCTION is a word used to join words or groups of words.
Different kinds of conjunctions are used in different ways.
Kinds of Conjunctions
o Coordinating conjunctions connect words used in the same
way. (two words, phrases, or clauses)
and, or, nor, for, but, yet, so
Motors and software control a robot named Cog.
He can move to the left or to the right.
Cog is a computer-driven machine, but it acts like a human.
o Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that connect words
used in the same way.
both…and
whether…or
either…or
neither…nor
not only…but also
Both Cob and Kismet are robots with intelligence.
8. An INTERJECTION expresses concern, terror, disgust, joy, surprise, or
draws attention.
Oh no, oops, help, yuck, awesome, hooray, wow, whoops, hey
Notes:
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