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Diagnosing Study Problems Strengthening Student Success Richard Baiardo, MS Evergreen Valley College I’m Winston Wolf. I solve problems.... First Interview Surface Learning Problem Explain How Learning & Memory Work Introduce Remediation Steps Understand Study Approach Three Key Questions First Question “Was all the exam information contained in your notes?” – Purpose: determine if complete notes? (Student is required to bring lecture notes to the appointment.) Second Question If No – – “Do you have difficulty deciding when something important has been said?” – Listening or note-taking problem Third Question If Yes – “Describe everything that happens with notes from time you walk out of class?” – Study technique problem Subjects Requiring Different Approaches and Techniques Some academic disciplines present special study technique problems such as: – Mathematics – Accounting – Chemistry Chemistry Subject with symbols, formulas, definitions, and laws Ideas presented in: – mathematical terms in a sequential and hierarchical way First task: memorizing symbols – Symbols for elements* formulas (compounds) chemical reactions (equations) stoichiometry *Fe (iron), Cl (chlorine) = FeCl3 (i.e., FeCl3 + 3NaOH Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl) Foundation topics must be learned early. How Learning & Memory Work Central Problem Every Student Must Solve Pavlov of Memory Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 - 1909) Owe fundamental understanding of human memory to one man. 1885 published On Memory – Described memory experiments on himself. First scientific study of memory. Research Method Constructed lists – 20 “nonsense syllables.” VUZ CVC HUQ DAR PIW FOT RUJ BEL MAF MUK LEV LIM ZAD KIR Research Method Practiced list by repetition until correct two times in row. Counted number of times took to master list. Varied lengths of time before trying to remember. Forgot, practiced until remembered list perfectly again. Ebbinghaus’ Data Delay Savings immediate 100% 20 minutes 60% 1 hr 45% 9 hr 35% 1 day 30% 2 days 25% 6 days 22% 30days 20% Forgetting Most rapidly soon after end of practice. Rate slowed as time went on. Retention pattern = first forgetting curve. Retention Curve Time Spent Reviewing More times practiced list on day 1, fewer repetitions required to relearn on day 2. Amount remembered depended on: – Time spent on repetition. – When started rehearsal. Ebbinghaus’ Findings Three Principles Principle I Memory decays as a function of time. Rate of forgetting: – Fastest after initial learning – Slower for more meaningful material Principle II Amount remembered depends on multiple times spent learning. Principle III Effect of “overlearning”: Information practiced beyond mastery more resistant to disruption or loss. What Does Not Work! Pseudo Learning Strategies Strategies With Limited Value Listening in class. Taking notes. – Only taking notes using the lecture outline. “Rote” rehearsal (memorizing facts and conclusions). – Examples: rereading and repeating. Shallow processing. Shallow Processing Recopying or retyping your notes. Waiting until after lecture to read textbook assignment. Waiting until last minute to review. Why Do They Not Work? ISSUE IS NOT TIME SPENT ON TASK NOR EFFORT SPENT TO REMEMER Graph of Forgetting Curve Brain Basics Brain Learning Memory Human Brain About 3 pounds 78% water, 10% fat, 8% protein Less than 2.5% of body’s weight Uses 20% of body’s energy at rest Brain Numbers 100 billion neurons Each neuron has 10,000 connections 1,000 trillion synaptic connection points 280 quintillion memories “The nerve cell, or neuron resembles a miniature tree…” (p. 21) Diamond & Hopson, 1998 How does Brain Lay Down and Retrieve Memories? Grow and develop, neurons are 'wired up' to each other. Communicate through thousands of connections synapses. Memories formed when certain connections are “strengthened.” Synaptic Density Natural pruning process – Pruning of unused connections – Most of pruning occurs between 10-16 years – Synaptic density reduced Connections To maintain connections, cells must stay active “Strengthening” means: – Neuron grows more dendrites – Adds more receptors on dendrites/cell body Disintegrate/disappear if cell doesn’t use Brain Modified by Environment Dendrites can grow at any age Synaptic connections occur at any age; easier earlier in life Brain is adaptable Plasticity ‘Use it or Lose it’ The Only Way We Learn is by MAKING CONNECTIONS Memory is “Associative” Memory of new information is increased if: Associated with previously acquired knowledge Meaningful association = effectively remembered. Closely Studied Memory Factors Intention Repetition Emotion Deep Processing Four Closely Studied Memory Factors Intention - how much effort you expend. Repetition - how often material is repeated. Emotion - whether material brings emotional response. Depth of processing - whether related to known material. Shallow vs. Deep Processing Simple rehearsal – Definition: Repeating information Elaborative rehearsal – Definition: Actively reviewing and connecting to knowledge already stored. Remediation Steps How to Take Notes Review: How & When How to Take Notes Cornell note-taking system. – Important features: • Red line – Position on the page indicates importance. – Only a major point touches – Everything else is indented – Further from red line, less important. • Cue column – Key words & phrases – Permits review by recall Cues Students Use to Decide They Know Something Cognitive science: two cues important in guiding judgments of what we know: – (1) our “familiarity” with a given body of Information. – (2) our “partial access” to that information. Getting a Complete Set of Notes Start a Study Group Advantages: – Get a complete set of lecture notes. • Immediately after class, meet with your group to fill in any gaps in your lecture notes. • Won’t matter how hard you study if you missed an important point in the lecture. – Opportunity for review and exam preparation. • You can ask questions. • Explain to others what you know. • Gain emotional support. Review by Recall When How Multiple Reviews Are Essential 1st review: within minutes 2nd review: within 24 hours 3rd review: within the week 4th review: within the month (before the test) 5th review: within the semester (before final exam) Graph of Forgetting Curve and Effect of Review Deeper Level Processing Review by recall not by recognition Establishing more connections with LTMs – – – – Making associations. Attaching meaning. Forming relationships. Creating hierarchies. Deep Processing Techniques Techniques: – – – – Writing outlines. Self-examination during learning. Review questions. Previews. Encourage integration of material and thereby process (i.e., think about) meaning. Second Interview Feedback Modeling Review Recent Set of Notes Student brings recent set of lecture notes – (taken within 24 hours) What worked; what did not? Review notes together Additional Suggestions Sleep and Stress Effect on Memory Deprivation Stress Role of Sleep Brain uses to process the day’s experiences – Compensates for inadequate sleep with: • • • • • • Shorter attention span Lowered creativity Reduced memory capacity Rigid viewpoints Irritability Increased appetite In both animals and humans: – Increase in rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep during night following learning experience. Sleep Deprivation Sleep deprivation adversely effects learning. Low-frequency sleep - mainly at start of night – Plays a role in memory consolidation REM sleep - mainly at the end of a night’s sleep – Plays role in problem solving Interference and Sleep Percentage 90% of syllables 80 recalled 70 Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep 60 50 40 30 20 After remaining awake 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 8 Performance Stress and Memory Low Moderate Stress High Final Thoughts Adult Learning Characteristic of “A” Students Graph of Learning “A” Students What is the single behavior that distinguishes an “A” student from a “B” or “C” student? “A” students start early! References Bloom, Benjamin S. Developing Talent in Young People, 1985, Ballantine Books Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406. Pauk, Walter. How to Study in College. 2005, Houghton Mifflin Ross, Philip E. “The Expert Mind” Scientific American, August 2006 Willingham, Daniel T., “Inflexible Knowledge: The First Step to Expertise,”American Educator, Winter 2002 Willingham, Daniel T., “How Knowledge Helps: It Speeds and Strengthens Reading Comprehension, Learning—and Thinking,” Am. Educator,Spring 2006 Willingham, Daniel T., “Why Students Think They Understand—When They Don’t,” American Educator, Winter 2003-2004 Willingham, Daniel T., “Practice Makes Perfect, But Only If you Practice Beyond the Point of Perfection,” American Educator, Spring 2004 Willingham, Daniel T., “Students Remember...What They Think About,” American Educator, Summer 2003 Supplementary Material Types of Knowledge Rote Shallow Inflexible Flexible “Rote” Knowledge Memorizing form in absence of meaning. – Knowledge devoid of meaning. – Memorizing something you do not understand. “Shallow” Knowledge Meaning - understand each isolated part. – Unlike rote knowledge Lacks deeper meaning that comes from understanding relationship among parts. “Inflexible” Knowledge It may appear as rote, but it’s not. Knowledge - meaningful but narrow. Doesn’t translate to other relevant situations. – Example: classical conditioning. Knowing particulars of an example – Meant to illustrate a principle not the principle. New Knowledge Tends to be shallow and inflexible when it is first learned. – Normal – Usefulness is limited. “Flexible” Knowledge As continue to work with knowledge, you gain expertise. Knowledge no longer organized around examples Organized around principles. Where Knowledge Seems Flexible Suppose know how to find the area of a rectangle. That knowledge is probably generalizable: – Can apply it to any rectangle. – Formula not tied to specific examples in which learned. – Can use formula in novel situations: determining total square footage of a: hallway kitchen dining room Testing for Flexible Knowledge Multiple Choice Questions Types of Multiple Choice A blood pressure reading of 200/96 mmHg is considered: A. B. C. D. Hypotension Hypertension Cardiac hypertrophy Renal hypertension Types of Multiple Choice A newly admitted client has a blood pressure of 200/96mmHg. The client has a family history of diabetes mellitus. Which nursing action is most appropriate at this time? A. B. C. D. Call the doctor Retake the blood pressure Assess for other signs and symptoms Ask the client if he/she is taking antihypertensives. What’s the Difference? First question - recalling factual information Second question - clinical decision using critical thinking skills. – Clinical scenario-type questions are commonly used in nursing exams. Testing for Factual Knowledge and Critical Thinking You are the nurse on a med-surg. unit who has just received report. Which patient should you assess first? a. A 35 yo admitted 3 hours ago with a gunshot wound; 1.5cm area of dark drainage noted on the dressing b. A 43 yo s/p mastectomy 2 days ago with 23cc of serosanguinous fluid noted in the drain. c. 59 yo with a collapsed lung due to an accident; no drainage in the chest tube over the previous shift. d. A 62 yo s/p abd-peritoneal resection 3 days ago; pt now with complaints of chills. Background Knowledge Needed Medical terminology: – – – – yo S/p Pt Abd Vocabulary: – serosanguinous – Peritoneal Nature of the four surgeries What is normal and expected? What do you not expect to see? “d.” - huge surgery - big, deepbowl cancer. Chills = – Internal bleeding – infection Effective Strategies Spacing Effect Sustained Practice Expertise Overlearning Spacing Effect Cognitive research evidence: – Distributing study time over several sessions: • better long-term retention than a single study session. Short periods of practice daily are better than cramming. “mass vs. distributed practice” Sustained Practice = Regular, ongoing review or use. Practice beyond one perfect recitation. Practice past point of mastery is necessary to develop expertise. Useful for developing automaticity. "Practice makes perfect" Obvious that practice is important. Unexpected finding: practice does not make perfect. Practice until perfect – perfect only briefly. STM or LTM requires ongoing practice. Developing Expertise Practice involves more than repetition. Experts engage in “deliberate practice:” – Setting specific goals – Obtaining immediate feedback of results – Concentrating on technique more than outcome – Exerting effort to improve performance Expert’s Attitude Approaches everything with need to learn more. Never loses intensity of a beginner. Never feels finished or satisfied. Engages in ongoing effortful study: – Continually tackling challenges that lie just beyond one's competence. Overlearning Overlearning – Studying material one already knows. For a new skill to become automatic or for new knowledge to become long lasting, sustained practice, beyond the point of mastery, is necessary. Developing “Automaticity” Permits higher levels of competence. Become more skillful in mental tasks. – Effective writer knows: • Rules of grammar and usage • To begin a paragraph with a topic sentence • Include relevant detail automatically Developing “Automaticity” When cognitive processes automatic, demand very little space in working memory. – In any field certain procedures used again and again. – Procedures must be learned to point of automaticity so they no longer consume working memory space. Major Point Will only remember what extensively practiced. Only remember long term what practiced in a sustained way over many years. Background Knowledge Comprehension Take In New Information Comprehension of new information depends on what you already know that can be connected. More basic knowledge = easier to build new knowledge – Easier to fix in memory when have knowledge about topic. Deeper processing, comprehension, and listening all depend on background knowledge. Think About New Information Language is full of semantic breaks where knowledge is assumed. Making correct inferences demands background knowledge. Information Stated vs. Implied “John’s face fell as he looked down at his protruding belly. The invitation specified “black tie”and he had not worn his tux since his own wedding 20 years earlier.” What is John concerned about? Reference “He was a real Benedict Arnold about it” Thinking About New Information Read through one time, then look away and recall letters: CN NFB ICB SCI ANC AA “Chunking” Most people get about 7 correct. Demands background knowledge: CNN FBI CBS CIA NCAA General Education Prerequisites Purpose is to create a larger body of general knowledge. Some researchers maintain prior knowledge actually makes up or replaces aptitude. Motivation “Motivation is a more important factor than innate ability.” “The preponderance of psychological evidence indicates that experts are made, not born.” - Philip E. Ross A Common Student Mistake Thinking We Know Something Feeling of Knowing Familiarity & Partial Access How Do We Know That We Know Something? Psychologists distinguish between: – Familiarity - knowledge of having seen or otherwise experienced some stimulus before, but having little information associated with it. – Recollection - characterized by richer associations. Feeling of Knowing If believe know material, likely to divert attention elsewhere. – You will stop: • • • • Listening Reading Working Participating Mentally “checking out” is never a good choice. Feeling of Knowing Some common causes: – Rereading. – Shallow processing. – Recalling related information. Feeling of knowing becomes a problem if have feeling without knowing. Rereading Prepare for exam by rereading class notes & textbook. Encounter familiar terms – know you’ve heard these terms before – become even more familiar to you as you reread “Yes, I’ve seen this, I know this, I understand this.” Feeling you understand material as it is presented not same as being able to recount it yourself. Feeling of Knowing Some students quit once some facts have been memorized, believing already done quite a bit of studying. Cues Students Use to Decide They Know Something Cognitive science: two cues important in guiding judgments of what we know: – (1) our “familiarity” with a given body of Information. – (2) our “partial access” to that information. Guarding Against “Familiarity” Insidious effect of familiarity: – Feeling know something when really don’t. – Fools mind: think know more than do. Guarding Against “Partial Access” Knowing a lot of related information – Makes feel as though know the target information. Mind fooled when know part of material or related material. The Test! Standard of “knowing:” – “ability to explain to others,” not “understanding when explained by others.” Process information as if preparing to teach it to another. “To teach is to learn twice.” Source: “Thinking You Understand When You Don’t” by Daniel T. Willingham Bloom’s Study of High Achievers Five-year study 120 nation’s top artists, athletes, & scholars Research goal - understand keys to high achievement. Case Studies Conducted in-depth anonymous interviews with top 20 performers in six fields. Research hypothesis: Expected to hear tales of great natural gifts. Findings Heard accounts of an extraordinary drive and dedication not great natural talent. Bloom’s study concluded drive and determination are keys. Training a Future Expert Bloom proposed training involved four stages: Stage 1 – introduced to area under playful conditions as a child – promise was noted Stage II – Lessons were provided, usually with a teacher or coach who worked well with children – regular practice habits were established. Training a Future Expert Stage III – internationally recognized teacher or coach engaged – requires significant commitment of resources from parents – dedicated and likely exclusive study by the child. Stage IV – student absorbs all that he or she could from teachers – began to develop his/her personal contribution to the field. Summary Start early Review new material by recall at least 3X/wk Study in shorter spaced periods vs. massed effort Increase background knowledge Strive for automaticity Use overlearning Join a study group Tutor others Get 8-9 hours of sleep per night Final Thoughts Assume Nothing; When in Doubt, Always Check it Out! Final Thoughts Confident →Cocky →Lazy →Dead! -Scott Swaby References Bloom, Benjamin S. Developing Talent in Young People, 1985, Ballantine Books Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406. Ross, Philip E. “The Expert Mind” Scientific American, August 2006 Willingham, Daniel T., “Inflexible Knowledge: The First Step to Expertise,”American Educator, Winter 2002 Willingham, Daniel T., “How Knowledge Helps: It Speeds and Strengthens Reading Comprehension, Learning—and Thinking,” American Educator,Spring 2006 Willingham, Daniel T., “Why Students Think They Understand—When They Don’t,” American Educator, Winter 2003-2004 Willingham, Daniel T., “Practice Makes Perfect, But Only If you Practice Beyond the Point of Perfection,” American Educator, Spring 2004 References Willingham, Daniel T., Ask the Cognitive Scientist “Students Remember...What They Think About,” American Educator, Summer 2003