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Memory
Memory
 the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve
information
3 Basic Processes:
 Encoding
 Storage
 Retrieval
Three-System Memory Theory
 Sensory memory
 the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an
instant
 types are dependent on the source of sensory information
(iconic memory, echoic memory)
 can store information for only a very short time, but its
precision is high
 can be destroyed or replaced with a new one
 Short - term memory
 memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
 Chunk
 a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in
short-term memory
 can be individual letters or numbers, or may consist of larger
categories such as words or meaningful units
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Rehearsal
 the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
 information is maintained in the short-term memory or may transfer into
long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
 occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion
 expanding, linking to another memory, turning to image, transforming to
some other way
Mnemonics
 formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more
likely to be remembered
Working Memory
 Some theorists view short - term memory as a working memory, in
which information is retrieved and manipulated. In this view, it is a
central executive processor involved in reasoning and decisionmaking
 a set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and
rehearse information
3 systems
 visual store (visual and spatial information)
 verbal store (speech, words, numbers)
 episodic buffer (episodes or events)
 It uses significant amount of cognitive resources during its operation.
In turn, it makes us less aware of our surrounding.
 Long - term memory
 memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis,
although it may be difficult to retrieve
Serial position effect
 the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list
an item appears
primacy effect
 items presented early in the list are remembered better
recency effect
 items presented late in a list are remembered best
Memory Modules
Declarative memory
 memory for factual information
Semantic memory
 for general knowledge and facts about the world as well as memory for
the rules of logic that are used infer other facts
Episodic memory
 memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
Procedural memory
 memory for skills and habits
Semantic Networks
 mental representations of clusters of interconnected
information
Spreading activation
 activating one memory triggers the activation of related
memories
Neuroscience of memory
Hippocampus
 aids in the initial encoding of information
Cerebral Cortex
 where information is stored
Amygdala
 involved with memories involving emotion
Recalling Long-Term Memory
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows
- a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from
long-term memory
Retrieval Cue
 is a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information
that is in long-term memory
Recall
 memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
Recognition
 memory task in which individuals are presented with a
stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in
the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
 What are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
 Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarves in
the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Goofy
Bashful
Sleepy
Sneezy
Smarty
Happy
Scaredy
Doc
Dopey
Crazy
Wheezy
Donald
Levels-of-processing Theory
 emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
 the amount of information processing that occurs when material is
initially encountered is central in determining how much of the
information is ultimately remembered
 information is processed in physical and sensory aspects
 translated to meaningful units
 analyzed in terms of meaning (wider context, associations)
 the deeper the initial level of processing of information is, the longer
the information will be retained
Forms of Memory
Explicit memory
 intentional or conscious recollection of information
Implicit memory
 memories of which people are not consciously aware, but
which can affect subsequent performance and behavior
 unclear dislike for an acquaintance
 prejudice and discrimination
Priming
 a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept
(prime) later makes it easier to recall related information,
even when there is no conscious memory of the word or
concept
 Name the moon of Mars.
 _ _ obos
Flashbulb Memories
 memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising
event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of
the event
 memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved
(although not necessarily accurate) than are those relating to
events that are commonplace
 romantic experience, witnessing car accident, first airplane
flight
Source amnesia
 when an individual has a memory for some material but
cannot recall where he or she encountered it before
Constructive Processes
 processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we
give to events
 experiences, guesses, inferences affect the memory we produce
when we retrieve information
Schemas
 organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the
way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
 are based not only on the specific material to which people are
exposed, but also on their understanding of the situation, their
expectations, and awareness of motivations of others
 A basic principle is that some information gets lost during
each process.You notice only a small part the world that
confronts you; you encode only a small part of what you
notice; and you retrieve only part of what was previously
stored in your memory.
Memory in the Courtroom
 eyewitness on trial
 wordings of questions
 weapons
 Age
 repressed memories - recollections of events that are initially
shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the
unconscious
 false memory - inaccurate or even wholly false
 experience or imagination
Autobiographical Memory
 incompatible with the way in which we currently see
ourselves
 particular periods of life are remembered more easily than
others
Why We Forget
 Failure of encoding
 Decay - loss of information in memory because of nonuse
 Interference - the phenomenon by which information in
memory disrupts the recall of other information
 Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when
there are insufficient retrieval cues to revive information that
is in memory
The Before and After of Forgetting
 Proactive interference
 interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the
recall of newer material
 Retroactive interference
 interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of
information learned earlier because of later exposure to
different material
Memory Dysfunctions
Alzheimer’s disease
 an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems
Amnesia
 memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
retrograde amnesia
 in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
anterograde amnesia
 in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury
Improving Memory
 keyword
 encoding specificity
 organization cues
 effective note taking
 practice and rehearse
 don’t believe claims about drugs that improve memory