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SCIENCE CHINA
Earth Sciences
Progress of Projects Supported by NSFC
• REVIEW •
October 2012 Vol.55 No.10: 1565–1587
doi: 10.1007/s11430-012-4516-y
Destruction of the North China Craton
ZHU RiXiang1*, XU YiGang2, ZHU Guang3, ZHANG HongFu1,
XIA QunKe4 & ZHENG TianYu1
1
State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China;
2
State Key Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Guangzhou 510640, China;
3
School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China;
4
School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
Received March 27, 2012; accepted June 18, 2012
A National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) major research project, Destruction of the North China Craton (NCC), has
been carried out in the past few years by Chinese scientists through an in-depth and systematic observations, experiments and
theoretical analyses, with an emphasis on the spatio-temporal distribution of the NCC destruction, the structure of deep earth
and shallow geological records of the craton evolution, the mechanism and dynamics of the craton destruction. From this work
the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) Significant spatial heterogeneity exists in the NCC lithospheric thickness and
crustal structure, which constrains the scope of the NCC destruction. (2) The nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
sub-continental lithospheric mantle (CLM) underneath the NCC is characterized in detail. In terms of water content, the late
Mesozoic CLM was rich in water, but Cenozoic CLM was highly water deficient. (3) The correlation between magmatism and
surface geological response confirms that the geological and tectonic evolution is governed by cratonic destruction processes.
(4) Pacific subduction is the main dynamic factor that triggered the destruction of the NCC, which highlights the role of cratonic destruction in plate tectonics.
NSFC major research project, research progress, craton destruction, North China Craton
Citation:
Zhu R X, Xu Y G, Zhu G, et al. Destruction of the North China Craton. Sci China Earth Sci, 2012, 55: 1565–1587, doi: 10.1007/s11430-012-4516-y
The Earth is a dynamic subsystem in the solar system and
has gone through numerous changes since its formation
about 4.6 billion years ago. Throughout the history of science, the Earth has been extensively studied in terms of
material, movement, chemical change, physical field and
geologic structure. Plate tectonics, a theory proposed in the
1960s, described the dynamic movements of the geological
plates of the Earth on a global scale. This theory opened a
new chapter in Earth sciences, which view the Earth as dynamically evolving system.
The theory of plate tectonics was founded on the hy*Corresponding author (email: [email protected])
© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
pothesis of continental drift and seafloor spreading. The
striped pattern of sea-floor magnetic anomalies provided the
most powerful observational evidence for the theory of plate
tectonics. However, the several-hundred-million-year period
of the seafloor cycle from seafloor spreading to oceanic
plate subduction is only a fragment of the long history of
Earth’s evolution. During the past several few billion years,
how did continents grow and what caused their demise? Is
the past or the future controlled by the evolution of continents? The basic idea behind the theory of plate tectonics
are still thought to hold true, but many geoscientist have
been expanding on the basic theory and have put forward
many new ideas such as crustal growth, crust-mantle recyearth.scichina.com
www.springerlink.com
1566
Zhu R X, et al.
Sci China Earth Sci
cling, continental subduction/exhumation, continental reworking, among many others in the study of continental
dynamics.
The tectonic evolution of North China Craton (NCC) has
been a subject of interest to geoscientists. Chinese geologists have extensively explored the tectonic development of
the NCC in the last hundred years and have put forward
various theories of the NCC evolution. For example, Prof.
Wenhao Wong proposed the “Yanshanian Movement” in
1927 [1], which was used to express the strong tectonic
movement of eastern China in the latter part of the Mesozoic, or the “Platform Reactivation” theory founded by professor Guoda Chen during the period of 1956–1960 [2].
Since the 1980s, several important ideas, such as continental
deep subduction [3] (the Qinling-Dabie Mountains on the
southern margin of the NCC) and lithospheric thinning [4]
(the eastern part of the NCC), stand out on the basis of geological observations and experimental studies. For example,
the inference that the Early Paleozoic lithospheric mantle
beneath the eastern NCC had the attributes of a typical craton was proposed based on the studies of mantle xenoliths
in the Ordovician diamondiferous kimberlites from the
NCC (Mengyin County in Shandong Province and Fuxian
County in Liaoning Province). The lithosphere of the NCC
was about 200 km thick when the kimberlites erupted at
about 470 Ma. However, the Cenozoic basalts sampled a
thin lithosphere of only 80–120 km, which suggests lithospheric thinning of more than 100 km since the Early
Paleozoic. Petrological and geochemical studies have discussed possible physical and chemical processes that could
change the nature of lithospheric mantle, and proposed a
variety of mechanisms for lithospheric destruction, such as
delamination, thermo-chemical/mechanical erosion, peridotite-melt interaction, mechanical extension, and water
weakening model of the lithosphere [5–11].
The NCC has experienced not only the lithospheric thinning, but also the transformation of lithospheric properties
and thermal state. Large-scale ductile deformation and
magmatic-metallogenic activities occurred in the crust of
the NCC, which originally would have been cratonic in
character. The presence of such deformation suggests that
the NCC has been partially destroyed and the original properties of the craton no longer exist. We call the geological
phenomenon by which a craton loses stability as craton destruction. Lithospheric thinning is only a superficial phenomenon and it is cratonic destruction that controls the
evolution of cratons [12]. There can be multiple mechanisms of cratonic destruction, such as delamination, thermal
erosion, or peridotite-melt reactions, which might be a manifestation of slab-mantle interaction or embody the interactions of different mantle rocks. Different pre-existing tectonic settings will likely correspond to differences in the
type of destruction experienced by a craton. In the view of
geodynamic mechanisms, the destruction of NCC is mainly
controlled by the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
[11].
In the past few years, Chinese scientists have carried out
a comprehensive study of geology, geophysics and geochemistry on the NCC using a “natural laboratory research”
scientific model with a global perspective. The major research project, Destruction of the NCC, funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China since 2007, has
mainly encompassed the following 5 key scientific issues: (1)
spatio-temporal distribution of the NCC destruction, (2) the
structure of deep Earth and thermal-structural-fluid processes of the craton destruction, (3) correlation of superficial environment, mineral accumulation, and seismic activities with the destruction of NCC, (4) mechanisms, processes,
and dynamics of the NCC destruction, and (5) significance
of the NCC destruction in global geological and continental
evolution. Using mobile seismic stations and in-situ isotope
tracer technology, high-precision, high-resolution, largescale and multi-attribute observations have been obtained
and huge amounts of data analyzed. Interdisciplinary approaches, built on the observations and experimental data,
have enabled us to obtain fresh evidence and new understanding of the destruction of the NCC and its implications
for near-surface resources and the global evolution of the
Earth’s continents. This article briefly reviews the new progress achieved so far in the research area of the destruction
of NCC.
1 Structure of the crust and the upper mantle
beneath the NCC
Understanding the role of craton destruction in the evolution
of the global tectonics is crucial for the study of continental
dynamics. To achieve this it is necessary to understand, not
only the lithospheric nature and modification processes, but
also the dynamic tectonic system, which caused the craton
destruction. In view of extensional tectonics and magmatism, the materials and energy of modifying the lithosphere
could come from several tectonic activities, including mantle plumes, the uprising of asthenospheric mantle derived
from the lithospheric delamination, or the special mantle
flow system associated with the subduction. The crustmantle structures are key constraints for differentiating these
tectonic effects.
Since 2000, a total of 975 temporal stations equipped
with portable broadband seismometers have been deployed
in the NCC with an average spacing of about 10–15 km.
Three wide-angle reflection/refraction profiles were performed with a total length of 3400 km. The combined
ocean-bottom-seismometer (OBS) and land portable seismometer survey was carried out in the Bohai region for two
profiles with a total length of ~930 km. The data obtained
from the large-scale temporary seismic observations (Figure
1) in the NCC have enabled the study of crust and mantle
structures in unprecedented detail.
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October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
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Figure 1 Map of the seismic stations and seismic observation profiles in the NCC and adjacent region. Red triangles represent temporary seismic stations,
green triangles represent Chinese National Digital Seismic Network stations, purple triangles represent ocean-bottom-seismometer (OBS), and blue lines
represent wide-angle reflection/refraction profiles. The names of the observation profiles used in the text and in Figures 2 and 4 are marked.
1.1
Geographical extent of the NCC destruction
The NCC reactivation (deformation/destruction) during the
Mesozoic-Cenozoic was proposed based on the evidence of
a disappearance of the thick, cold, and refractory ancient
lithospheric keel obtained from previous petrological and
chemical studies. However, the spatially limited distribution
of rock samples has hindered our understanding of the extent and nature of the lithospheric destruction. A wave
equation-based poststack depth migration technique was
developed [13] to image the lithosphere-asthenosphere
boundary of the NCC from the seismic observations
[14–17]. The map of lithospheric thickness (Figure 2) beneath the eastern NCC indicates a thinning lithosphere and a
general SE-NW deepening of the lithosphere-asthenosphere
boundary, from 60–70 km in the southeast areas to 90–100
km in the northwest. The thick lithosphere (~200 km) is
present beneath the Ordos Basin, and the thin lithosphere is
found in the Cenozoic Yinchuan-Hetao and Fenwei rifts
around the Ordos Basin, with sharp boundaries between
these regions. Near the boundary between the eastern and
central NCC, a rapid thickness variation of lithosphere is
observed and is roughly coincident with the North-South
Gravity Lineament. These observed structural changes in
the crust [18–22] and lithosphere [14–17] indicate that parts
of the NCC, especially at the eastern Taihang Mountains,
have experienced significant destruction of the lithospheric
mantle.
1.2 Tectonic evolution information recorded in the
crust
Available geochronological data suggest that an age of 4.0
Ga is considered to represent the most primitive continental
crust age for the NCC, with the major crustal growth of the
NCC taking place from 3.0 to 2.5 Ga. Zheng et al. [18–22]
reconstructed crustal structures beneath the seismic observation profiles in the NCC with the teleseismic data using
an integrated receiver function imaging technique. The
crustal structure of shear wave velocity from the LijinDatong-Ertuoke profile (NCISP-2 and NCISP-4) cross the
NCC with E-W trending is displayed in Figure 3 [18, 20].
The profile is characterized by a thick sedimentary cover
(2–12 km thick), a thin crust with a thickness of ~30 km,
and a horizontal inter-layering of low and high velocities in
the eastern part of the crust section, which represent crust
deformed by extension. In the western part of the crustal
section the intra-crustal interfaces and the Moho are relatively smooth, with a Moho depth of ~40 km, which may
represent a relatively stable tectonic feature in the NCC.
The imaging from the centre part of the crust section exhibits the flexural intra-crustal interfaces, the dipping and flat
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October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
Figure 2 Lithospheric thickness contour map of the NCC. Numbers on the contour lines denote the values of the lithospheric thickness in km. BBB, Bohai
Bay Basin; CAOB, Central Asia Orogenic Belt; NSGL, North-South Gravity Lineament; TM, Taihang Mountains; YC-HT, Yinchuan-Hetao; YM, Yanshan
Mountains; YinM, Yinshan Mountains. After ref. [12].
Figure 3 The shear-wave velocity structure of the crust along the seismic observation profiles (NCISP-2 and NCISP-4) with E-W trending (data from refs.
[18, 20]). The scale of S velocity is shown on the right.
low-velocity zones, and the crustal root with the depth of 46
km, which was speculated to represent the tectonic remnant
of the continental collision during the assembly of the NCC
[20]. The significant structural contrast between the eastern
and western parts of the crust indicates that the craton destruction was mainly concentrated in the eastern NCC.
The widespread Mesozoic extrusive volcanic rocks and
granites, and the occurrence of metamorphic core complexes (indication of large-strain extension in the crust), and
the crustal thinning in the eastern NCC document that not
only the NCC lithospheric mantle, but also the NCC crust,
especially the lower crust, has been modified during the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The structures of the crust-mantle
boundary provided solid evidence of the magmatism. In the
stacked profiles of the receiver functions a strong PpPs
phase can be continuously traced in the Yanshan region,
however, the PpPs phase is diffuse and weakened in the
Taihangshan region [22]. The distinct characteristics exhibited by the PpPs phases of the receiver function profiles are
mainly generated by the distinct structures of the crustmantle boundary based on the forward and inversion analysis for the waveforms of the Ps phase and PpPs phase from
the Moho [22]. The thick crust-mantle transition zone results in diffuse and weakened PpPs phases in the Taihangshan region, which could be explained by the underplating
of the mantle-derived magma. The sharp crust-mantle
boundary yields strong PpPs phases in the Yanshan region,
which could be attributed to the direct contact of intruding
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mantle materials with the evolved higher-level crust due to
the rapid foundering of the lower crust associated with the
NCC destruction. The seismic observations of the crustmantle boundary structure reveal that there are distinct processes of crustal modification and magmatism in the NCC
destruction.
1.3 Intra-lithospheric mantle structure recorded continental evolution
The receiver function imaging from S-to-P waves, in which
the stronger velocity change can be continuously traced,
have been successful used to map the depths of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary beneath the NCC (Figure 2).
However, the identification of the seismic signatures that
correspond to the intra-lithospheric mantle structure is difficult due to the weak signal, and disturbances from crustal
reverberations. Zheng et al. [23] performed a series of synthetic tests of common conversion point (CCP) stacking
images to distinguish between the multiple waves generated
by the crustal structure and the velocity discontinuities in
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the intra-lithospheric mantle. They then used this approach
to identify the velocity discontinuities in the intra-lithospheric mantle above the 110 km depth. The CCP images of
intra-lithospheric mantle structure were obtained for
six-profiles spanning different tectonic units in the NCC
based on dense seismic array data (Figure 4).
The seismic imaging results indicate a diverse intralithospheric mantle structure in different parts of the NCC.
The majority of profile NCISP-4 and the northern part of
profile NCISP-7 are located at the western NCC, which
covers a Paleoproterozoic assembled continent in the NCC.
The lithospheric mantle is generally homogeneous in the
western MCC. The NCISP-1, NCISP-3, and NCISP-6 profiles span the eastern NCC, where the lithosphere has been
modified. The presence of high-velocity fragments may be
related to the slab break-off and/or the delamination of the
lower crust and the lithospheric mantle. The profile
NCISP-5 and the southern part of profile NCISP-7 are located at a Phanerozoic continental collision zone, where the
Yangtze Plate was subducted northward beneath the NCC.
The seismic imaging results suggest intermittent and juxta-
Figure 4 CCP stacked receiver function images of the crust and lithospheric mantle along six profiles. Red and blue denote positive and negative amplitude of the receiver functions as annotated in the color bar, which indicate a velocity increase or decrease with depth, respectively. The black dots and blue
dots mark the intra-lithospheric mantle velocity discontinuities. The green dash lines mark the stacked amplitude of the PpPs multiples from a shallow crustal structure. Data source: ref. [23].
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posed velocity interfaces in the intra-lithospheric mantle.
The velocity interface positions closest to the surface are
located at the Shangdan suture to the north and at the Mianlue suture to the south. The imaged high-velocity volumes in the intra-lithospheric mantle beneath the southern
NCC were interpreted as a subduction remnant in the uppermost mantle, which suggest a flat subduction channel
resulted from the continent-continent collision between the
NCC and the Yangtze Plate.
From these observations, we interpret that the tectonic
processes of NCC evolution are responsible for the complex
intra-lithospheric mantle structures. The tectonic relicts of
Phanerozoic continent-continent collision were preserved in
the lithospheric mantle, but the tectonic relics of Paleoproterozoic amalgamation could only be preserved in the crust
[20]. In the modified lithospheric mantle of eastern NCC it
is difficult to identify the previous tectonic relict by the
seismic observations.
1.4 Interaction between continental lithosphere and
subduction plate
Since the Late Paleozoic, the NCC settled into the East
Asian continent by amalgamating with the surrounding continental blocks. To the north, the amalgamation of the NCC
with the accreted terranes of the Central Asian Orogen occurred during the Late Permian to Early Triassic, after the
Paleo-oceanic lithosphere had subducted beneath the northern margin of the NCC. To the south, the Qinling-Dabie
Orogen represents a convergent boundary of the continent-continent collision between the NCC and the SCB,
where the Qinling Ocean closed and the Yangtze Plate subducted northward beneath the NCC and collided in the Triassic. During the Late Mesozoic, the NCC became an important active part of the circum-Pacific tectono-magmatic zone. All of these tectonic events have been considered as the geodynamic factors in causing the destabilization of the NCC.
Recent advancements in station coverage and seismic
imaging method enable more detailed imaging of the deep
structure beneath the NCC, which can provide seismological constraints on the deep structure of upper mantle to help
in the discrimination of the various dynamic regimes responsible for the continental lithosphere modification. Zhao
et al. [24, 25] presented new 3-D tomographic models of VP,
VS and VP/VS ratio anomalies in the mantle to a depth of 700
km beneath eastern China and adjacent areas (Figure 5).
The tomographic images were constructed by inverting
body wave travel-times recorded at stations within the upgraded China National Seismic Network and temporary
arrays. Jiang et al. [26] constructed the S-velocity model of
the upper mantle above 300 km by using the multipleplane-wave tomography. The multi-scale heterogeneities
occupy the upper mantle beneath the NCC. An obvious N–S
trending narrow low-velocity region is located at the base of
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the lithosphere beneath the central NCC extending to more
than 500 km depth, which suggests an upwelling channel of
warm mantle material with a source at least as deep as the
transition zone. The results of shear wave splitting measurements using the SKS phase recorded from the permanent
and temporal seismic stations revealed that the anisotropy
pattern of the upper mantle in the NCC is substantially variable [27–32], and indicate the correlation between the anisotropy pattern change and the lithospheric structural
change. An inerratic change of the anisotropy pattern in the
low-velocity area in central NCC and beneath the Tanlu
fault zone was found.
Receiver function imaging provides an effective approach to construct the structure of mantle transition zone.
The topographies of the 410 and 660 km discontinuities
have been observed beneath the NCC using the seismic data
from dense arrays in the NCC [33–37]. The imaging results
indicate that the mantle transition zone appears thick in the
eastern part, which is consistent with the high-velocity
anomaly observed by tomography. The depression of the
660 km discontinuity in the eastern NCC is suggested to
arise from the effect of the cooling stagnant remnant of the
subducting Pacific slab in the mantle transition zone. Depth
anomalies at both discontinuities were detected by using a
three-dimensional regional velocity model [37]. The depressions of the 410 km discontinuity are mostly located in
the eastern NCC associated with the low-velocity zone in
the central NCC, which was speculated a dynamic mantle
regime derived from the slab stagnating, sinking, and induced upwelling at the neighboring slab front.
These observations of the upper mantle structure and anisotropy pattern provide evidence of the dynamic interactions among the subducting slab, cratonic root, and ambient
mantle beneath the NCC. These regimes hint that the craton
destruction was possibly dominated by interaction between
the lithospheric mantle and the asthenosphere mantle controlled by the Pacific subduction, which is a problem that
needs further investigation.
2 Nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC and
their modification processes
The widespread distribution of Mesozoic igneous rocks in
the NCC indicates that the lithospheric thinning of the NCC
was associated with the change in physical and chemical
properties of the lithospheric mantle. Systematic investigations on the xenoliths/xenocrysts of different ages from the
main tectonic blocks (the Eastern Block and the Western
Block) and tectonic zones (Tanlu fault zone and Taihang
Mountain gravity lineament) across the NCC, in particular,
experimental studies using the newly developed tracers of
radiogenic isotopes (Hf and Os) and non-traditional stable
isotopes (Li, Mg and Fe), have led to many new insights
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Figure 5 Cross-sections from the tomographic VP and VS velocity models. (a)–(d) P wave velocity perturbations at different sections; (e)–(h) S-wave velocity perturbations at different sections. After ref. [25].
into the properties of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the craton and their modification processes.
2.1 Nature of the Paleozoic lithospheric mantle: Cratonic
Age determination of the lithospheric mantle is difficult.
Traditionally, the formation age of lithospheric mantle can
be approximately estimated by the major element depletion
of the lithospheric mantle, that is, the molar percentages of
forsterite (Fo) [38]. The Fo content of peridotites is high
(>92 mol.%) in Archean lithospheric mantle, but relatively
low (<91 mol.%) in Phanerozoic mantle (Figure 6). The
peridotite xenoliths and olivine inclusions in the diamonds
from the Ordovician kimberlites of the NCC have high Fo
values and fall in the field for Archean mantle peridotites
(Figure 6). This suggests that the lithospheric mantle most
likely formed in the Archean. Os isotope data of the peridotite xenoliths in the kimberlites indicate that most of the
samples have Archean Re depletion ages (Figure 7), and all
of them have Archean depleted mantle model ages [44],
which is consistent with the previous observations [47, 48].
Combined with temperature-pressure estimations, these
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To sum up, the lower crust and lithospheric mantle of the
NCC have a nature of typical craton before its thinning of
the lithospheric keel.
2.2 Heterogeneity of Mesozoic lithosphere and its
modification
Figure 6 The variation of Fo with modal (%) of olivines from the mantle
peridotites of the NCC. The Paleozoic represents the peridotite xenoliths in
the Paleozoic kimberlites. Mesozoic-Cenozoic high Mg and low Mg represent the Mesozoic and Cenozoic high-Mg# and low-Mg# peridotite xenoliths from the NCC, respectively. Data sources: refs. [9, 39–43].
Figure 7 Histogram showing the TRD age distribution of the peridotites
from the NCC. Data sources: refs. [40, 44–46].
observations further demonstrate that the lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC was ancient (Archean), had low
geothermal gradient, had a thickness up to 200 km, and remained refractory before its thinning.
Geochronological and Hf isotopic geochemistry of zircons in the lower crustal granulite xenoliths entrained in the
basic and alkali rocks of different ages from the NCC suggest that the lower crust formed in the Archean (about
2.5–2.7 Ga ago). Most of the zircons have ages of 2.5 Ga
[49], which indicates that the Neoarchean of 2.5 Ga was an
important period for the formation or reworking of the ancient lower crust of the NCC.
The chemical compositions and physical properties of lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC have changed greatly since
the Mesozoic [9]. In contrast to the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic
lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern part of the NCC is
composed of lherzolites and pyroxenites, which are relatively fertile in major elements, enriched in large-ion lithophile elements, depleted in high field strength elements,
with high 87Sr/86Sr and low 143Nd/144Nd isotopic ratios
[50–53]. These characteristics suggest that the ancient lithospheric mantle beneath the craton experienced intensive
modification by recycled crustal materials, which produced
spatio-temporal heterogeneity [9]. However, there is still
hot debate on the source of the recycled crustal materials, in
particular for the southern margin of the craton. One of the
popular viewpoints is that the crustal materials were derived
from the deeply subducted Yangtze crust [50–53]. Another
suggestion is that the recycled materials were derived from
delaminated lower crust of the NCC [54–56]. The zircons
from the lower crustal granulite xenoliths in the late Cretaceous basic rocks of Jiaodong region are Paleoproterozoic-Archean in age [57, 58]. This can be explained by two
scenarios: (1) Given that the sampling sites are located in
the Sulu orogenic belt, these ages may have nothing to do
with the old lower crust and the analyzed zircons may be
detrital or derived from the continental collision belt; or (2)
the old lower crust still existed in the late Cretaceous [57,
58], which precludes lower crust delamination of the NCC.
Based on the study of Mesozoic igneous rocks in the southern margin of the craton (Bengbu area), Liu et al. [59] proposed a new interpretation where by partial melting of
pre-existing thickened lower crust in the southern and
northern margins of the craton left the residues denser as a
result of felsic melt extraction, which resulted in gravitational instability and foundering of the lithosphere. Such a
lithospheric thinning is similar to the mountain-root collapse in the Dabie Orogen of central China, which suggests
that this model may have broad significance for foundering
of a thickened lower crust in the settings of orogenic belts
and cratonic margins.
The mantle peridotite xenoliths in the Mesozoic igneous
rocks of the NCC also demonstrate that the Mesozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the craton was heterogeneous (Figure 6). The lithosphere in the Jiaodong region of the eastern
craton has a double-layered structure with ancient residues
in the upper layer, represented by high-Mg# peridotites, and
newly-accreted lithospheric mantle in lower layer since the
Late Cretaceous, represented by low-Mg# peridotites [60].
In-situ Li isotope analysis on peridotite xenoliths gives fur-
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ther support for this conclusion and the modification of
high-Mg# peridotite by melt metasomatism [42]. The ancient residues of lithospheric mantle have also been observed in the Central Zone of the NCC and the core Fo of
olivine xenocrysts in the gabbros can be as high as 92–94
(Figure 6) [61].
Similarly, zircon geochronology and Hf isotopes of the
lower crustal granulite xenoliths in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basic and alkali rocks from the NCC indicate that the
ancient lower crust of the craton experienced widespread
multi-stage modification of magma underplating, which
corresponds to the multiple tectonic events of Early Paleozoic, Late Paleozoic, Early Mesozoic, Late Mesozoic and
Cenozoic [62–65]. Among them, the Late Paleozoic magmas were likely derived from the partial melting of subducted oceanic slab during the closure of Paleo-Asian
Ocean [58]. The widespread magma underplating at about
120 Ma could be related with the contemporaneous activity
of the South Pacific mantle plume and even the subduction
of Pacific Plate [64]. Therefore, the lower crust of the NCC
also experienced the modification process similar to that of
lithospheric mantle.
In summary, the destruction of the NCC is not only by
the modification and destruction of lithospheric mantle, but
also the modification and destruction of the lower crust and,
in some regions, the whole crust. The destruction achieved
the peak in the Late Mesozoic. After destruction, the eastern
NCC no longer retained the attributes of a typical craton.
The available studies suggest that the melts, which lead to
the modification of the Mesozoic lithosphere, were mainly
derived from crustal materials, that is, subducted continental
crust in the southern margin, but subducted oceanic crust in
the northern margin of the craton.
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isotopes [45].
The Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the Taihang
Mountains and the Western Block of the craton has doublelayer structure similar to that of the eastern craton. In the
upper layer, the lithospheric mantle is composed of high-Fo
harzburgites and lherzolites (Figure 6) and some samples
from the Yangyuan (Hebei Province), Fanshi (Shanxi Province) and Hebi (Henan Province) have Archean Re-Os
model ages (Figure 7) [40, 67, 68]. In contrast, the lithospheric mantle in the lower layer is composed of relatively
young (mainly Proterozoic TRD ages, Figure 7), fertile (Fo<
90; Figure 6) and isotopically depleted lherzolites and
pyroxenites [45, 67–69] with an isotopic signature similar to
oceanic lithospheric mantle. However, this “oceanic” lithospheric mantle is distinct from the newly-accreted lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC, and is the product
of interaction between peridotites and melts derived from
the asthenosphere (i.e., the result of lithosphere-asthenosphere interactions [45, 67–69]).
The interaction between peridotites and melts derived
from different sources is the main cause for inter-mineral
Sr-Nd and Li-Fe-Mg isotopic disequilibria (Figure 8) [42,
68–73]. The modification of peridotites by sulfur-unsaturated melts likely led to the decomposition of sulphides in
2.3
Refertilization of Cenozoic lithosphere: lithosphere-asthenosphere interaction
The modification and destruction of the Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC are mainly characterized
by refertilization of the lithosphere (i.e., lithosphereasthenosphere interaction). For example, the Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the Jiaodong region in the southeastern NCC inherited the double-layer structure with old
residues in the upper layer and newly-accreted lithospheric
mantle in the lower layer. However, the old lithospheric
mantle no longer exists in the Tanlu fault zone, where further thinning of the lithosphere has occurred, and the lithospheric mantle beneath this region is composed of relatively
young lithosphere. Moreover, the newly-accreted lithospheric mantle also experienced intensive modification of
carbonate-rich silicate melts derived from the asthenosphere,
which resulted in the formation of cpx-rich lherzolites and
wehrlites with extremely low Fo (Figure 6) [39, 46]. These
conclusions are further supported by geophysical observations [17], Paleo-geothermal gradient [66], and Re-Os
Figure 8 Li-Mg-Fe isotopic compositions of the mantle peridotite xenoliths from the NCC. (a) Variation of Mg and Fe isotopic ratios in the mantle peridotites [71, 73]; (b) Variation of Li abundances and isotopic compositions in the peridotites [70]. The systematic variations of isotopic
compositions in different rocks from the same area reflect the result of
mantle peridotite-melt interaction.
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the peridotites, which could be the most important reason
for the low Os contents and high Os isotopic ratios in the
mantle peridotites of the NCC [46, 74].
Studies based on multiple isotopes (Sr-Nd-Os-Li-Mg-Fe)
suggest that peridotite-melt interactions occurred in multiple
stages and that the melts were derived from diverse sources.
Periodic and complicated peridotite-melt interactions not
only led to the large-scale lithospheric destruction of the
eastern NCC, but also resulted in the variable degree of
thinning and high geochemical heterogeneity of the lithosphere in the Central Zone and the margins of the Western
Block [42, 69–73]. The spatial variations of lithospheric
thickness and compositions of the NCC reflect the important effects of inward subduction of circum-craton plates
and subsequent collisions with the craton on the evolution
of the NCC [9, 41, 64, 74].
3 High water content in the Mesozoic and low
water content in the Cenozoic lithopsheric
mantle of the NCC
3.1 High water content in the Mesozoic lithospheric
mantle
It has been suggested that the longevity of craton is related
to the low water content of its deep mantle root, which gives
much higher viscosity to resist asthenosphere erosion [75].
Whatever the mechanism for craton destruction, the low
viscosity of the lithospheric mantle, which is expected to be
closely related with elevated water content, would be a mechanical prerequisite. Previous petrological and geochemical studies have demonstrated that the high-magnesium
basalts of the Feixian area in the eastern part of the NCC
erupted in the early Cretaceous (~120 Ma) were derived
from the lithospheric mantle without significant crustal
contamination during ascent [55]. Electron microprobe and
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy investigations of
the clinopyroxene phenocrysts in the Feixian basalts
demonstrated that the H2O content of the earliest crystallized phenocrysts (Mg# values at ~90) are 210–370 ppm by
weight [76]. Based on these values and the partition coefficient between clinopyroxene and melt [77], the calculated
H2O content of the primary basaltic magma is 3.4±0.7 wt%
[76]. Furthermore, the H2O content of the lithospheric mantle source of these basalts was estimated to be more than
1000 ppm by weight (Figure 9). This water content is much
higher than both the source of mid-ocean-ridge basalts
(50–200 ppm by weight) [78–81] and the Kaapvaal craton
(~120 ppm) [82, 83]; the latter is still stable after >3 billion
years [75]. The calculated viscosity of the Mesozoic lithospheric mantle of the NCC was close to that of
asthenosphere [76]. Because ~120 Ma is the peak time of
the destruction, these data therefore confirm that the craton
destruction is tightly related to elevated water content of its
lithospheric mantle [84].
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
Figure 9 Water contents in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric
mantle of the NCC. The range of the NCC is from refs. [76, 85, 86]; that of
the South African craton is from refs. [82, 83]; that of the MORB source is
from refs. [78–81].
3.2 Low water content in the Cenozoic lithospheric
mantle
The Cenozoic lithospheric mantle of the NCC is characterized
by a low water content [85, 86] compared to continental
lithospheric mantle worldwide, which is represented by
typical cratonic peridotites from South Africa and Colorado
Plateau and off-cratonic peridotites from Basin and Range
(USA), South Mexico, Massif Central (France), West Kettle
(Canada) and Patagonia (Chile) [82, 83, 87–89]. H2O contents of clinopyroxenes and orthopyroxenes of the NCC
peridotites hosted by <40 Ma alkali basalts from 12 localities are generally less than 200 and 100 ppm by weight, respectively, whereas those of typical cratonic and off-cratonic
peridotites are generally more than 200 and 100 ppm by
weight. For bulk H2O contents, those of the NCC peridotites
(Figure 9) and typical cratonic are generally less than 50
ppm by weight, but off-cratonic peridotites typically have
more than 50 ppm by weight H2O. Clearly, the present
lithospheric mantle of the NCC is much drier than the Mesozoic counterpart, resulting in its stable status. The characteristics of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle
of the NCC suggest that hydration was probably related to
the Pacific subduction, while dehydration was probably due
to reheating and/or partial melting events that acted in concert with the NCC lithospheric thinning.
4 Shallow geological records for craton destruction
4.1
Shallow geological evolution
Continent-continent collision of the western and eastern
blocks along the Trans-North China Orogen at ~1.8 Ga resulted in the formation of a united craton of the NCC [90].
The NCC was a typical craton from the Mesoproterozoic to
the Early Triassic (~1.6 Gyr) and received typical cratonic
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cover deposition of shallow marine sediments during this
period. During the Late Ordovician to Early Carboniferous,
it experienced uplift and cessation of deposition, probably
due to subduction of the paleo-Tethys Ocean in the south.
This uplifting was not associated with shortening deformation in the NCC. The paleo-Asian oceanic crust subducted beneath the NCC in the Late Paleozoic and eventually the NCC collided with the Mongolian Block at the end
of the Permian [91]. Jurassic closure of the MongoloOkhotsk Ocean [92] led to collage of the North China-Mongolian blocks and Siberian Craton. Under this regional shortening setting, folding with nearly E-W axes [93]
and magmatism of the volcanic arc [94] took place along
the Yinshan-Yashan tectonic belts in the northern margin of
the NCC during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. Regional short-lived extension and resultant magmatism also
occurred in these belts in the Early Mesozoic due to
post-collisional extension in the north [8, 95]. Continentcontinent collision of the NCC and South China Plate as
well as northward crust subduction of the South China Plate
in the Early Mesozoic caused hinterland deformation and
formation of WNW-ESE fold and thrust belts in the southern margin of the NCC [96]. The Tan-Lu Fault Zone initiated as an intra-continental transform fault zone during the
collision and sinistrally offset the Dabie and Sulu orogens
on a large scale [96]. In contrast to the intense magmatism
along the northern margin of the NCC, Late Mesozoic
magmatism along the southern margin is absent. Following
the collision of the NCC and South China Plate, the Ordos
Basin, a large flexure-type hinterland basin, formed in the
western NCC during the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic in
contrast to the similar Early to Middle Jurassic Hefei Basin
formed only on the southern margin of the eastern NCC,
showing a general state of the western depression and eastern uplifting for the whole NCC [90]. Sinistral faulting
along the NNE-striking Tan-Lu Fault Zone and a series of
associated faulting events took place in the eastern NCC
from the end of the Middle Jurassic to the beginning of the
Late Jurassic [98–101] due to high-speed, oblique subduction of the Izanagi Plate beneath the East Asian continent
[97]. This event represents the beginning of tectonic evolution controlled by the western Pacific Plate motion in the
eastern NCC [98, 101].
The so-called craton destruction means an overall loss of
its craton nature [12]. Lithospheric thinning only happens
under a regional, extensional setting. It is understood therefore that a key shallow sign for the NCC destruction is
widespread and intense extension. Late Jurassic deposition
is rare in the NCC, which indicates uplifting during this
period [94, 102]. The exception is the occurrence of large
volcanic basins in the Yanshan tectonic belt [103], which
are filled with Late Jurassic volcanic rocks such as the Diaojishan or Lanqiyin Formation and associated with synchronous, acid plutons. Late Jurassic plutons, such as the
Linglong batholith in the Jiaobei region and the
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1575
Jinshan-Tushan granite pluton just to the north of the Hefei
Basin, are also present on the southern margin of the eastern
NCC. Petrological and geochemical studies of the plutons
[104–107] suggest that the Late Jurassic magmatism took
place due to lithospheric thinning. Recent structural studies
[108, 109] also demonstrate that local extension initiated
along the southern and northern margins of the eastern NCC
in Late Jurassic. However, the absence of Late Jurassic
magmatism and extensional structures in the interior of the
eastern NCC implies that Late Jurassic lithospheric reworking only happened along the southern and northern margins
of the eastern NCC, and its interior remained in a stable
uplifting state.
Peak destruction of the eastern NCC took place in Early
Cretaceous. This is clearly shown by shallow geological
records such as formation of a series of metamorphic core
complexes, widespread occurrence of rift basins and normal
faults, as well as large-scale volcanic eruption and plutonism (Figure 10(a)). Many metamorphic core complexes
of Early Cretaceous age, such as Fangshan, Yunmengshan,
Chifeng, Wazhiyu, Liaonan and Wanfu metamorphic core
complexes [110–116], appear in the Yanshan-Liaonan tectonic belts with many supra-detachment basins. A series of
Early Cretaceous rift basins, such as Zhoukou, Guzhen,
Xinyang-Huanchuang, Hefei and Jiaolai basins [101, 102]
developed along the southern margin of the eastern NCC.
The interior of the eastern NCC is characterized by the present of small Early Cretaceous rift basins, such as the
southwestern Shandong basins, which include Qufu, Sishui,
Pingyi, Dawenkou, Xingtai, Mengyin and Laiwu basins,
and the Bohai Bay basins [101, 102].
The Tan-Lu Fault Zone also changed into huge normal
faults controlling development of many graben or
half-graben basins in the Early Cretaceous [101]. These
terrestrial rift basins in the eastern NCC are filled with both
clastic and intermediate volcanic rocks. Normal faults controlling development of the basins strike NNE (Figure
10(b)). Ductile detachment shear zones of the metamorphic
core complexes also show NNE-striking. A detailed analysis for the Early Cretaceous extension [101, 102, 117]
demonstrates that peak rifting happened between 145 and
115 Ma while the metamorphic core complexes formed
during 130–120 Ma [118]. The rifting decreased at the end
of Early Cretaceous (115–100 Ma) and remaining basins
were localized along large normal faults such as the Tan-Lu
Fault Zone, eastern Taihang Fault and Lanliao Fault (Figure
10(b)). The shallow geology of the eastern NCC exhibits an
obvious change in the Late Cretaceous. Regional uplifting
predominated in the eastern NCC during this period. Late
Cretaceous rift basins appeared locally in the eastern NCC,
such as the Hefei, Guzhen and Jiaolai basins on the southern
margin as well as local small basins in the Bohai Bay basins
and Yanshan-Liaonan tectonic belts (Figure 10(c)). Metamorphic core complexes, volcanic eruption and plutonism
of Late Cretaceous age are absent in the eastern NCC.
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Extensional structures in the eastern NCC.
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Normal faults controlling the local basins changed into a
generally E-W striking and indicate a weak extensional setting. Many Paleogene rift basins were developed again in
the eastern NCC (Figure 10(d)) and are often associated
with basalt eruption. This period is a main stage for formation of hydrocarbon-bearing basins in the eastern NCC.
Rift basins of Early Paleogene age, a deposition stage for
the Kongdian Formation and lower Shasi beds, are widespread in the interior and south of the eastern NCC. Basins
of Middle Paleogene age, a deposition stage for the upper
Shasi beds and Shayi beds, are localized in the Bohai Bay
basins while those of Late Paleogene age, a deposition stage
of the Dongying Formation, are concentrated in Bohai Bay
around the Tan-Lu Fault Zone [119, 120].
4.2 Relation between shallow geology and deep processes
The shallow geology of the NCC destruction is characterized
by extensional activities whereas the deep processes are
represented by lithospheric transformation and thinning,
which are mainly evident by magmatism. Correlation between the extensional activities and magmatism can reveal
the relation between the shallow geology and deep processes. The consistency between the magmatism peak period
(130–120 Ma) [73–94] and formation times of the metamorphic core complexes, which represent the most intense
extension, suggests that a close linkage between the deep
process and shallow geology. Correlation between the shallow extensional activities and magmatism from the Late
Jurassic and the Paleogene also demonstrate a close temporal-spatial relationship.
The northern and southern margins of the NCC were obviously affected by plate convergence, which led to thickening of crust and whole lithosphere due to shortening [93,
96] and changes of both lithospheric composition and nature.
This is why the margins experienced the destruction first.
Another example of the influence of deep textures and their
relation to shallow geology is the Tan-Lu Fault Zone. This
major fault zone, which existed before the craton destruction, has lower lithospheric strength and favorable passages
for magma transportation. It became an intense extension
and magmatic belt during the NCC destruction [99, 117]
and has the thinnest lithosphere in the whole eastern NCC
and the most remarkable transformation for lithospheric
mantle [9, 121].
Following the intense intermediate magmatism of the
Early Cretaceous, magmatism in the eastern NCC became
rare in the Late Cretaceous. There were tholeiitic basalt
eruptions in the Paleogene and local alkaline basalt eruptions in the Neogene and Quaternary. Mantle xenoliths from
basalt of the latest Early Cretaceous in the Liaoxi Basin and
that of the Late Cretaceous in the southern Jiaolai Basin
indicate that the mantle transformation finished in the Early
Cretaceous [9, 121]. It is inferred by some authors [8] that
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1577
the NCC destruction ended in the Early Cretaceous and
some lithospheric thickening happened during the Cenozoic.
The Paleogene rifting in the eastern NCC (Figure 10(d))
implies that some periods of lithospheric thinning could
occur after completion of the lithospheric mantle transformation and under the overall setting of lithospheric thickening. This inference is also supported by the fact that the
Bohai Bay basins experiencing intense Paleogene rifting
and have the thinnest lithosphere in the eastern NCC [12]. It
is noted that the Liaoxi and Jiaolai basins, which contain
with mantle xenoliths that suggest the Early Cretaceous
completion of lithospheric mantle transformation, have not
experienced Paleogene rifting. It is therefore suggested that
the completion times for the lithospheric mantle transformation and thinning are probably not consistent in the eastern NCC.
5 Pacific subduction as main trigger of destruction of the NCC
The formation and destruction of cratonic lithosphere are
closely related to plate tectonics [122]. The geodynamic
factors that triggered the destruction of the NCC remain a
subject of debate. Several possible triggers have been proposed, which include (1) the India-Eurasia collision [123,
124]; (2) mantle plume activity [125, 126]; (3) the Yangtze-North China collision [47, 127] and (4) the subduction
of Pacific Plate underneath the eastern Asian continent [11,
12, 128–136]. A detailed review on these different opinions
can be found in Wu et al. [6]. In brief, the first two have
been all but ruled out and the current debate focuses on the
latter two.
The collision between North China and South China in
the Triassic will have undoubtedly exerted an important
influence on the evolution of the NCC. For example, provenance analyses on the basis of detrital zircons from the
Ordos Basin reveal that Jurassic sediments were derived
from Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt [137]. Xu et al. [53, 54,
138] found ecologite xenoliths in late Mesozoic igneous
rocks in Xuhuai area, southeast of the NCC and determined
their metamorphic age as Triassic, identical to that of UHP
metamorphism (240–225 Ma). This implies crustal thickening due to the collision between North China and South
China and possible subsequent delamination. However, the
temporal and spatial pattern of craton destruction is the key
to assess whether this model is viable. If the destruction of
the NCC took place in the late Mesozoic, it is hard to understand why the thickened crust that formed during
240–225 Ma was delaminated in the early Cretaceous [6].
The source of the middle Jurassic granite from Tongshi
(western Shandong) is early Proterozoic lower crust, but
these granites have no adakitic composition. This suggests
that there was no crustal thickening in the interior of the
Craton at that time, or at least suggests that crustal thicken-
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ing as a consequence of the collision between North China
and South China was spatially limited. Geochemical studies
on Mesozoic mafic rocks suggest that the influence of the
northward subduction of the Yangtze plate on the NCC is
confined to a 200–400 km wide section on its southern edge
[140]. Importantly, if crustal thickening was indeed related
to northward subduction of the Yangtze plate beneath the
NCC, the EW-oriented Dabie-Sulu belt would imply a NS
pattern of craton destruction and is likely confined to
Southeastern part of the NCC. This expectation is not consistent with the general NNE oriented pattern of lithospheric
thinning in the NCC [6].
At present, many researchers regard Pacific subduction
as one of principal triggers of the destruction of the NCC,
on the basis of the following observations and inferences:
(1) Geophysical investigations and morphological analyses indicate that decratonization is largely confined to east
of the North-South Gravity Lineament (NSGL), whereas to
west of NSGL, in particular the Ordos basin, characteristics
typical of a craton are observed [5, 12, 17, 67, 132, 141].
This spatial pattern of craton destruction, together with
NE-NNE-oriented extensional basins, main structural alignments and metamorphic core complexes [117, 142, 143], is
consistent with the subduction direction of the Pacific Plate.
(2) Cenozoic basalts from both sides of the NSGL display different evolutionary trends. The upper mantle beneath these two regions is also different in terms of composition and Os isotopic ages. This led Xu et al. [144] to propose a diachronous extension in the NCC, with initial extension in the eastern part owing to the Late Mesozoic
paleo-Pacific subduction and subsequent extension in the
western NCC induced by the Early Tertiary Indian-Eurasian
collision.
(3) Two main episodes of late Mesozoic magmatism
have been identified in the Jurassic and the early Cretaceous.
These correspond to the subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath the Eurasian content and to subsequent extensions,
respectively [145, 146].
(4) Global tomography studies indicate that the subduc-
Figure 11
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
ted Pacific oceanic slab has become stagnant within the
mantle transition zone and extended subhorizontally westward beneath the East Asian continent [35, 37, 147–149].
The western end of this stagnant slab does not go beyond
the NNE-trending NSGL. Such a configuration outlines an
ultimate link between Pacific subduction and cratonic destruction.
If Pacific subduction is the cause of the destabilization of
the cratonic lithosphere under the NCC, the following
should be expected. (a) The temporal variation in extensional patterns in eastern NCC would be in pace with that of
movement of Pacific subduction and its subduction angle.
(b) Given the subduction of Pacific Plate underneath eastern
Asian continent, the slab-derived material should become
sources of Mesozoic-Cenozoic magmas in this region. (c)
This subducted slab may have released significant amount
of water into the overlying upper mantle so that relatively
high water content is expected. These three aspects have
been confirmed by multi-disciplinary studies in the past
years, which provides strong evidence for Pacific subduction as the main factor controlling the destruction of the
NCC.
5.1 Lithospheric extension in eastern NCC and Pacific
subduction
Integrated studies in terms of basin analyses, metamorphic
core complex, fault kinetics and dyke distribution indicate
that the eastern NCC experienced NWW-SEE extension
during the early-middle stage of the Early Cretaceous,
NW-SE stretching during the late Early Cretaceous and NS
extension during the late Cretaceous-Paleogene. This
clock-wise change in extensional direction is in pace with
the movement direction of Pacific Plate (Figure 11). This
suggests that the destruction of the NCC likely took place in
a back-arc extensional setting and the movement of Pacific
plate was responsible for back-arc extension in the continental margin. In other words, plate margin dynamics controlled the direction of surface crustal extension induced
Comparison between direction of lithospheric extension in eastern NCC and movement direction of Pacific Plate. After ref. [117].
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decratonization [117].
5.2 Subducted slab components in Mesozoic-Cenozoic
mafic magmas
Although Pacific subduction has long been invoked as the
trigger of post-Mesozoic geologic evolution and magmatism
in eastern China [150], material evidence for its involvement in magma genesis is still lacking. What geochemical
criteria can be use to identify subduction-related components in continental basalts? It is generally accepted that
oceanic island basalts (OIB) contain recycled oceanic components. Therefore, the geochemical characteristics of OIB
can be used as criteria to identify subduction-related components. These include (a) low 18O values in mineral
phenocrysts (related to water-rock interaction at high temperature), (b) OIB-like trace element distribution pattern,
such as depletion of high incompatible elements (Rb, Ba,
Th and U) relative to Nb-Ta, negative K and Pb anomalies,
and OIB-like Nb/U and Ce/Pb ratios (related to dehydration
of oceanic basalts), and (c) HIMU-like isotopic compositions (e.g., 206Pb/204Pb>19.5).
Cenozoic basalts from eastern NCC display geochemical
characteristics very similar to OIB, which points to the
presence of subducted oceanic slab as their sources. For
example, the Cenozoic basalts from Shandong, Northern
Jiangsu and Northeastern Anhui are depleted in highly incompatible elements and have a negative Pb anomaly [136,
151, 152]. In particular, 18O values of phenocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase in these lavas are less
than mantle values. This implies that subducted oceanic
crust contributes to the magma source, which has been subjected to metamorphic dehydration and high-temperature
water-rock interaction. Studies on Cenozoic basalts further
reveal that the lithospheric mantle beneath southeastern part
of the NCC is composed of ancient mantle and newly accreted mantle in the upper and lower parts of the mantle,
respectively. Based on this, together with the spatial variation in lithospheric thickness beneath the NCC, Zhang et al.
[136] proposed that east to west lateral lithospheric thinning
was induced by westward subduction of the Pacific subduction. They inferred that subduction erosion took place during the Jurassic, and that slab-mantle interactions were
strong in the early Creatceous, which resulted in localized
enrichment of newly accreted lithospheric mantle. The latter
became source of Cenozoic basalts.
Eocene basalts from Shuangliao, northeast China also
show evidence for subducted oceanic crust in their source
[153], which implies that Pacific subduction also affected
Northeast China. Among the Cenozoic basalts from eastern
China the Shuangliao basalts have the highest Fe2O3 content
(13.4%–14.6%) and lowest 87Sr/86Sr ratios (<0.703). They
have positive Eu, Sr, Nb and Ta anomalies, and are depleted
in very incompatible elements (Rb, Ba, Th, U, K), reminiscent of HIMU-type oceanic island basalts. Xu et al. [153]
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
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postulated that the subducted oceanic components may have
been derived from the seismically detected stagnant Pacific
slab within the mantle transition zone.
The influence of Pacific subduction on the genesis of
Cenozoic basalts in eastern China [36, 151, 152] is further
supported by the spatial distribution of mantle components
in the source of the Cenozoic basalts. Previous studies suggest that Cenozoic basalts from North and Northeast China
were derived by melting of DMM-EM1 hybrid sources
[154]. However, recent studies indicate that Cenozoic basalts from North and Northeast China are characterized by
high 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb, relatively higher Sr isotopic
ratios at given Nd isotopic ratios, similar to back-arc
tholeiites recovered from the Japan Sea Basin. This implies
that in addition to DMM and EM1 components, EM2 is also
present in the source of Cenozoic basalts from North and
Northeast China (Figure 12(a)). Importantly, the composition of basalts younger than 20 Ma indicates an EM1-EM2
mixed upper mantle beneath coastal lines of North and
Northeast China, and a predominant EM1-type mantle towards the interior of the Chinese continent (Figure 12(b)).
Since the formation of EM1-type mantle is related to recycled old lithosphere and EM2-type mantle may contain
Figure 12 (a) Sr-Pb isotopes of late Cenozoic basalts from North and
Northeast China; (b) Distribution of mantle components in the source of
late Cenozoic basalts in eastern Asia (after ref. [155]). The compositions of
mantle end-members (DM, EM1, EM2 and HIMU) are from ref. [156].
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subducted sediments, the spatial distribution of mantle
source in eastern China reflects the influence of Pacific
subduction on the evolution of the lithospheric mantle beneath this region.
The identification of oceanic slab components in Cenozoic basalts provides evidence for involvement of Pacific
subduction in magma genesis during the Cenozoic, but it
does not necessarily demonstrate the causal relationship
between Pacific subduction and destruction of the NCC.
Obviously, the timing of first occurrence of subducted oceanic components in mantle-derived magmas is the key. It
has been shown that the transition in magma source of
Mesozoic-Cenozoic magmas in North China took place at
~100 Ma. The mafic magmas emplaced before 100 Ma were
derived from an ancient, enriched lithospheric mantle,
whereas magmas younger than 100 Ma were derived from a
young, depleted mantle containing recycled oceanic slab
components.
Geochemical and isotopic investigations on magmas emplaced during 100–40 Ma were conducted by Xu et al. [158].
Three major components are identified, including depleted
component I and II, and an enriched component. The depleted component I, which is characterized by relatively low
87
Sr/86Sr (<0.7030), moderate 206Pb/204Pb (18.2), moderately
high Nd (~4), high Eu/Eu* (>1.1) and HIMU-like trace element characteristics, is most likely derived from gabbroic
cumulate of the oceanic crust. The depleted component II,
which distinguishes itself by its high Nd (~8) and moderate
87
Sr/86Sr (~0.7038), is probably derived from a sub-lithospheric ambient mantle. The enriched component has low
Nd (2–3), high 87Sr/86Sr (>0.7065), low 206Pb/204Pb (17),
excess Sr, Rb, Ba and a deficiency of Zr and Hf relative to
the REE. This component is likely from the basaltic portion
of oceanic crust, which is variably altered by seawater and
contains minor sediments. Comparison with experimental
melts and trace element modeling further suggest that these
recycled oceanic components may be in the form of garnet
pyroxenite/eclogite, which may have been formed either by
melt-rock interaction during subduction [136, 151, 152], or
by metamorphic reaction of subducted oceanic crust [157].
The fact that Eu/Eu* and 87Sr/86Sr of 100–40 Ma magmas increases and decreases, respectively, with decreasing
emplacement age (Figure 13) led Xu et al. [158] to suggest
a change in magma source from upper to lower parts of
subducted oceanic crust. Such secular trends are created by
dynamic melting of a heterogeneous mantle containing recycled oceanic crust. Due to different melting temperatures
of upper and lower ocean crust and progressive thinning of
the lithosphere, the more fertile basaltic crustal component
is preferentially sampled during the early stage of volcanism
to generate alkali basalts characterized by high FeO contents, Eu/Eu*~1 and high 87Sr/86Sr. The more depleted gabbroic lower crust and lithospheric mantle components,
however, are preferentially sampled during a later stage and
form subalkaline basalts, characterized by positive Eu
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
anomaly and low 87Sr/86Sr.
These recycled oceanic components have an Indian-MORB Pb isotopic character (Figure 14) [153]. Given
the isotopic affinity by the extinct Izanaghi-Pacific Plate,
currently stagnated within the mantle transition zone
[146–148], we propose that it ultimately comes from the
subducted Pacific slab.
The discovery of subducted oceanic crust components in
source of magmas younger than 100 Ma implies that the
influence of the Pacific subduction can be traced back to at
least the late Cretaceous. Given the time interval required
by disintegration of subducted slabs into convective mantle,
it can be inferred that the influence of Pacific subduction on
Figure 13 Temporal variation in Eu/Eu* and 87Sr/86Sr in 100–40 Ma
basalts (MgO>8 wt%) from NCC and Northeast China (after ref. [158]).
Figure 14 Comparison of Pb isotopic composition of 100–40 Ma basalts
(MgO>8 wt%) from NCC and Northeast China and different MORBs.
Modified after refs. [153, 158]. Data for MORB are from ref. [159].
Zhu R X, et al.
Sci China Earth Sci
the evolution of the lithospheric beneath eastern China may
have been initiated at a time much earlier than late
Cretaceous [136].
5.3 Strong hydration of late Mesozoic lithospheric
mantle beneath eastern NCC
Water content in magma sources and in the lithospheric
mantle at different time is pivotal to verify whether Pacific
subduction triggered the destruction of the NCC, because
fluids appear to exert significant influence on the rheological strength of the continental lithosphere. On the basis of
water content measurements and H-O isotopes on different
aged peridotites by FTIR and SIMS, Xia et al. [76] show
that water content in the lithospheric mantle beneath eastern
NCC ranges from >500 ppm at ~125 Ma to <50 ppm in the
late Cenozoic. Because ~125 Ma represents the climax of
destruction of the NCC and the water content in CLM at
this time is significantly higher than the MORB source
(50–200 ppm), it is reasonable to infer that the destruction
of the NCC may have been induced by hydration of the
lithosphere, which considerably lowered its strength. It also
implies that the strongest influence exerted by Pacific subduction on the evolution of the NCC was at ~125 Ma. The
water concentration in the present lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC is significantly lower than in the MORB
source. This is consistent with the proposal that the lithospheric mantle under this region became re-stablized during
the Cenozoic, because dehydration can increase the strength
of the lithosphere. The temporal decrease in water content
in the lithospheric mantle from ~125 to 40 Ma therefore
mirrors the transition from craton destruction to lithospheric
accretion.
The abundant water in the Mesozoic lithosphere underneath the NCC may have been released by dehydration of
several subducting slabs, as the NCC was surrounded by
several subduction belts. If water was mainly derived from
northward subduction of oceanic plate between North China
and South China Blocks, or from southward subducted
paleo-Asian plate, the entire cratonic lithosphere would
have been rich in water. Since addition of water would significantly decrease the strength of the lithosphere [88, 154],
the destruction of the NCC would have proceeded either on
a whole scale, or in a north-southward differential way. This
is contradictory to the observed east-westward pattern of
craton destruction. This problem can be solved if the water
enrichment in the lithosphere was mainly derived from
westward subducted Pacific Plate. The stagnant Pacific slab
within the mantle transition zone beneath eastern NCC [146]
also suggests that westward subduction of the Pacific Plate
only affected the eastern part of the NCC.
To sum up, an integration of multiple disciplinary studies
show that Pacific subduction has exerted considerable influence on the evolution of the eastern NCC [12]. Pacific
subduction may have been responsible for the distribution
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
1581
patterns of post-Mesozoic basins, major tectonic configuration, temporal change of magmatism, water enrichment in
late Mesozoic lithospheric mantle and formation of the
North-South gravity lineament. It also explains why destruction is confined to the eastern part of the NCC.
5.4
Craton destruction and plate tectonic system
The main achievements summarized in this paper yield important implications for the relationship between craton
destruction and plate tectonics.
(1) The NCC not only experienced considerable lithospheric thinning, but also experienced strong crustal deformation, seismic activity and magmatism. All of these suggest that since the late Mesozoic, it no longer preserved
characteristics typical of a craton. Lithospheric thinning
may have also taken place in other cratons in the world, but
not all were subjected to craton destruction. It seems that
craton destruction takes place only when the craton is severely affected by the subduction of oceanic plates [12].
(2) Compared with typical cratons in the world, the NCC
is relatively small in size. More importantly, it has been
affected by the subduction of several plates from different
directions (i.e., northward Tethyan subduction, southward
subduction of Paleo-Asian oceanic plate and westward
subduction of paleo-Pacific Plate). In particular, the dehydration of the subducted paleo-Pacific Plate released significant amounts of water into the overriding lithospheric mantle beneath eastern NCC. As a consequence, the viscosity of
the lithosphere is significantly lowered [88, 160, 161] and
the continental lithosphere in this region is severely weakened, which facilitates its convective removal by underlying
asthenosphere and ultimate destruction of the NCC. Such a
process is reminiscent of North America where the formation of Codillera belt and partial destruction of the North
American craton were related to the eastward subduction of
Farallon plate [162]. In this sense, the craton destruction
results from tectonic activity of plate margins.
6 Summary and conclusions
On the basis of geological, geophysical and geochemical
studies on the NCC, the following conclusions can be
drawn.
(1) The nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
lithospheric mantle under the NCC is characterized in detail.
It is revealed that the late Mesozoic CLM was rich in water,
but Cenozoic CLM is highly deficient in water.
(2) There is a significant spatial heterogeneity in terms of
lithospheric thickness and crustal structure, therefore constraining the extent of destruction of the NCC.
(3) The correlation between magmatism and surface geology confirms that the geological and tectonic evolution are
governed by craton destruction processes.
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Sci China Earth Sci
(4) Pacific subduction is the main dynamic factor that
triggered the destruction of the NCC, which highlights the
role of craton destruction in plate tectonics. Specifically,
westward subduction of Pacific Plate is the first order geodynamics that triggered the destruction of the NCC. During
the craton destruction, both top-down crustal delamination
and bottom-up thermal erosion, accompanied by meltperidotite reaction, may have been operative. However,
these are only second order dynamic mechanisms, or different work way.
The lithospheric architecture, the upper mantle velocity
structure, and the nature of the mantle transition zone under
the NCC, as constrained by seismic tomography, outline the
interaction between plate subduction, lithospheric keel and
ambient asthenospheric mantle. The considerable change in
lithospheric thickness under continental margin and penetration of the stagnant slab into the lower mantle may have
induced upwelling of deep mantle material, which resulted
in small scale convection and instability of localized mantle
flows (see E-W cross-section in Figure 15). The imaged
high-velocity volumes in the lithospheric mantle beneath
the southern NCC indicate a flat subduction channel resulted from the continent-continent collision between the NCC
and the Yangtze Plate (see S-N cross-section in Figure 15).
A better understanding of the interaction between lithosphere and asthenosphere is pivotal to deciphering the tectonic-geodynamic mechanism of the destruction of the NCC.
The structural exploration of crust-mantle can provide major constraints and evidences of the lithospheric structure
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
responsible for the continental evolution.
The destruction of the NCC is characterized by widespread thinning of the lithosphere, but more importantly by
significant modification of lithospheric composition, nature
and structure, and by widespread tectonic reactivation and
magmatism. The temporal change in lithospheric composition may have been related to multiple stage interaction
between melt and peridotites. As indicated by comprehensive comparisons of mantle peridotites, similar melt-rock
interactions were also operative in other cratons [67]. Perhaps the evolution trend exemplified in the NCC has implications for studies of other ancient cratons, a subject that
requires further attention in the future study.
7 Perspectives
Although significant achievements have been made in recent years under the sponsorship of the NSFC Key Project
on the Destruction of the NCC, additional studies should be
carried out and new approaches should be employed in the
future.
(1) The destruction of the NCC is not a unique geologic
phenomenon, but represents the outcome of evolution of
continental lithosphere under certain geodynamic circumstances. A better understanding of craton destruction process requires cross-checking by different disciplinary studies. It is necessary to place the study of craton destruction in
the scheme of global continental evolution and to perform
Figure 15 Deep processes as illustrated by studies on crust-upper mantle structure in the NCC. Red triangles represent stations of temporary seismic array,
blue dots denote combined ocean and land observation sites. E-W section depicts interaction between plate subduction and lithosphere and its influence on
modification of the NCC. S-N section highlights the tectonic records of the amalgamation between NCC and Yangtze Plate.
Zhu R X, et al.
Sci China Earth Sci
comparison with other cratons and orogenic belts in the
world. The similarity and difference between the NCC and
other cratons will be the key to understanding why the continental lithosphere can remain stable for a long period and
why it can be destroyed in certain circumstances.
(2) Despite the mounting evidence for Pacific subduction
as the principal tectonic factor that triggered the destruction
of the NCC, an integration of multiple disciplinary studies is
required to further constrain how Pacific subduction affected and promoted the destruction of the NCC. In particular,
the following important questions still need to be addressed.
What are the origins of water and subducted slab components in the source of Mesozoic-Cenozoic basalts in eastern
China? What is the history of Pacific subduction? How did
the subducted oceanic slab react with the lithospheric mantle? By which means did the lithospheric mantle became
enriched in water and subsequently dehydrated? How does
the lithospheric mantle transition to asthenospheric mantle,
and vise-versa?
The answers to these questions can be obtained only if
new observational data are available and novel research
methods are applied. For instance, geophysical and numerical modeling are necessary to better understand the evolution of Pacific subduction and how it exerted influence on
the evolution of the continental lithosphere under the eastern Asian margin.
(3) Although lithospheric thinning also occurs in many
other cratons in the world, not all are accompanied by craton destruction. It appears that a craton, which lost its lithospheric keel due to mantle plume (e.g., Indian craton), may
preserve its inherent cratonic features. Craton destruction
seems only take place in cratons severely affected by oceanic subduction (e.g., NCC and Wyoming craton). Whether
this generalization is valid requires further studies and understanding of physical-chemical processes in the lithosphere-asthenosphere interface during the craton destruction.
While the study of craton destruction provides a window
to dynamic processes in the earth’s interior, continental reworking, which involves deformation, metamorphism and
melting, is another important geodynamic process whose
ultimate driving forces also come from the interior of the
Earth. A typical example of continental reworking is South
China, where (semi-) continuous tectonic movements, multiple episodes of magmatism and ore-forming processes
occurred since the middle Proterozoic [122]. It represents a
distinct way of continental evolution. Therefore a comparative study on the similarities and differences in the continental evolution of North China and South China, and their
driving forces are of critical importance to understanding
continental reworking and its role in continental evolution.
The operation of the NSFC Key Project on “Destruction
of the NCC” highlights the importance of global vision in
Earth sciences. In addition to cratons, orogenic collision
belts are equally important tectonic units on the Earth,
October (2012) Vol.55 No.10
1583
which are key to understanding the formation and evolution
of continents. The Tethys orogenic belt, which starts from
southern edge of west Europe, extends eastward to Mediterranean, Iran Plateau, Tibetan Plateau and finally arrives
at South-east Asia, is a typical arc-continent collisional
orogenic zone which is formed successively by closures of
Tethyan oceans of different ages [163]. It is worth noting
that this orogenic belt comprises three different sectors in
terms of morphology, geology and associated deep processes. To its western end it formed a linear chain of Alps
Mountains, the birth place of modern geology. In its middle
sector, the famous Iran and Tibetan plateaus can be found.
A large area of archipelagos occurs at its eastern end, where
the tectonic pattern is dominated by large scale strike-slip
movements. In particular, ultra-high pressure metamorphic
rocks recovered in the Alps and in the Himalaya suggest
where continental crust may have subducted to a mantle
depth. Clearly, detailed investigation into the Tethys orogenic belt can promote Chinese Earth Scientists to play a
more active role on the world’s research platform.
We thank Prof. Chen Yong’s invitation to write this article. The manuscript
benefited from valuable discussions with Profs. Zhang GuoWei, Li ShuGuang, Jin ZhenMin, Zhou GuangTian, Fan WeiMing and Zhang
XianKang. We are grateful to Greig A. Paterson for his help in editing the
manuscript. We thank Profs. Zheng YongFei, Wan TianFeng and an
anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and constructive suggestions. This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant Nos. 90714001, 90714004, 90714008, 90714009, 91014006,
91114206).
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