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Osmoregulation:-The regulation of solute and water content in an animal body is known as osmoregulation. Types of osmmoregulation : Osmoregulation in fresh water animal Osmoregulation in marine animal Osmoregulation in terrestrial animals Osmoconformers:- osmoconformers are the animals that do not control the osmotic concentration of their body fluid ,but change the osmolarity of their body fluid according to their medium. Many marine fishes lose water by osmosis, drink seawater, and excrete excess salts Gain of water and salt ions from food and by drinking seawater Excretion of salt ions from gills Osmotic water loss through gills and other parts of body surface Excretion of salt ions and small amounts of water in scanty urine from kidneys Osmoregulators:- osmoregulator are the animal that maintain an internal osmolarity , which is different from surrounding medium which they inhibit . E.g. :- protozoans & fresh water fish Osmoregulators control water and solute concentrations Freshwater fishes gain water by osmosis and tend to lose solutes Osmotic water gain through gills and other parts of body surface Uptake of water and some ions in food Uptake of salt ions by gills Excretion of large amounts of water in dilute urine from kidneys It is defined as the elimination of metabolic wastes. Types of excretion :Ammonotelism Ureotelism Uricotelism Proteins Nucleic acids Amino acids Nitrogenous bases –NH2 Amino groups Most aquatic animals, including many fishes Ammonia Mammals, amphibians, sharks, some bony fishes Birds, insects, many reptiles, land snails Urea Uric acid The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste as ammonia is called ammonotelism. Ammonia is readily soluble in water so it requires more amount of water. Ammonia is highly toxic so has to eliminated quickly. Kidneys play a minor role in elimination of ammonia. E.g.:-tadpoles aquatic soft bodied animals. The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste as urea is called ureotelism. It is 100,000 times less toxic than Ammonia. It need less water then ammonia for its elimination. It is concentrated in the blood or urine. It is less toxic than Ammonia. E.g.:-Mammals, terrestrial , adult amphibian, cartilaginous fish. The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste as uric acid is known as Uricotelism. It is very less soluble in water & those animals which have to conserve water in their bodies evolved this method. . It is less toxic than ammonia & can be retained in body. E.g.:- land snails , insects , birds , & many reptiles. PROTONEPHRIDIA :- PLANARIA, ROTIFERS, BRANCHIOSTOMA. METANEPHRIDIA :- EARTHWORM , OTHER ANNELIDS. MALPHIGHIAN TUBULE :- COCKROCH , LOCUST , GRASSHOPPER. GREEN GLAND :- PRAWN , CRASTASIANS. KIDNEY :- MAMMALS, IT IS CONSIST OF : TWO KIDNEYS A PAIR OF URETERS A URINARY BLADDER A URETHRA THE KIDNEYS ARE LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN, IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY , ATTACHED TO DORSAL BODY WALL. (Aorta) (Inferi orvena cava) Renal artery and vein Ureter Bladder Urethra Kidney IT IS BEAN SHAPED & MESURES ABOUT 10cm , 5cm , 3cm IN LENGTH BREATH & THICKNESS. IT IS CONSIST OF : HILUM/HILUS RENALIS PELVIS RENAL CORTEX RENAL MEDULLA RENAL PYRAMID CALYX Nephron is the structural & functional unit of kidney. Renal medulla Renal cortex Renal pelvis PYRAMID Ureter It is the structural & function unit of kidney. Each kidney contain a million of nephron. It contains:1. Bowman's capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3.distil convoluted tubule 4. Loop of henle. Urine collect in collecting duct where collecting tubule opens. Bowman’s capsule Renal artery Nephron tubule Collecting duct Renal cortex Renal vein Renal medulla To renal pelvis C. ORIENTATION OF A NEPHRON WITHIN THE KIDNEY Mechanism of urine formation Urine formation involves three process:1. Glomerular filtration 2. Tubular reabsorbtion 3. Tubular secretion Bowman’s capsule Arteriole from renal artery 1 Proximal tubule Glomerulus Capillaries Arteriole from glomerulus's 2 3 Loop ofHenle with capillary network Detailed structure of nephron Distal tubule Branch of renal vein From another nephron Collecting duct A ultra-filtrates is filtered from the blood of glomerular capillaries into the lumen. -This occur through a sieve-like secretion wall formed of three layers. 1.the single layer of capillary wall 2.the basement membrane 3.single layer of epithelium wall The process of filtration depends on two factor :1.Hydrostatic pressure difference in lumen 2.The colloidal osmotic pressure of plasma The glomerular filtration rate is about 125ml per minute in the two kidney The selective transport substances across the epithelium of the nephron from ultra filtrate to interstitial fluid is called Reabsorbtion . The table gives an idea about substances reabsorbed. Region of the tubule Substance absorbed actively Absorbed passively 1.PCT 70%Na 75% K large amount 75% of water Cl 2.Descending limb 3.Ascending limb 4.Duct collecting duct& tubule of Ca amino acid .vitaminC 25%K some Cl 5%water Some Na Some Cl Bowman’s capsule Proximal tubule Distal tubule NaCl H2O Glucose and H2O HCO3– HCO3– amino acids NaCl Blood Filtrate H2O Salts (NaCl, etc.) HCO3– H+ Urea Glucose Amino acids Some drugs Reabsorption Active transport Passive transport Secretion (active transport) Some NH H+ 3 drugs and poisons K+ CORTEX MEDULLA Loop of Henle H+ Collecting duct NaCl NaCl H2O NaCl Urea H2O Urine (to renal pelvis) Figure 25.11 •Secretion The nephron removes substances and adds them to the filtrate FILTRATION Nephron tubule REABSORPTION EXCRETION SECRETION H2O, other small molecules Capillary Urine Tubular secretion It is a highly selective process in which substances from the interstitial fluid join the fluid in the kidney tubule. -Depending upon the availability of water in the body kidneys can excrete hypotonic or hypertonic urine . -Urine is concentrated by two counter current system :1. Between the two limbs of vasa rectae & 2. Between the ascending & descending limb -It is also controlled by the hormones ADH & ANH -when the water is plenty hypotonic urine & when it is scarce hypertonic urine is excreted. -Malfunctioning of kidney is reflected in changes of composition of urine. -Some abnormal conditions are:albuminuria –presence of albumin in urine glycosuria – presence of glucose in urine haematuria - presence of blood in urine ketonuria - presence of ketone bodies uremia - presence of excess urea - Blood from the artery of an uremia person is taken cooled & mixed with anticoagulant like heparin. It is put into cellophanes tubes of the artificial kidney which is permeable to micromolecules. Outside the cellophanes tube is dialising fluid, which have some solute but no nitrogenous molecule. Hence the nitrogenous molecule from within the cellophanes flow into the dialyzing fluid following concentration gradient . The blood coming out from the artificial kidney is warmed to body temperature , mixed with anti heparin & restored to a vein Line from artery to apparatus Pump Tubing made of a selectively permeable membrane Dialyzing solution Line from apparatus to vein Fresh dialyzing solution Used dialyzing solution (with urea and excess salts) The kidney transplant is taken from a person which genetic make up is close to patient . The immune system of the patient recognizes the {non-self} cells & immune system triggered may result in rejection of transplant . Immunosupperasant are used to prevent such a rejection. Skin has two types of gland:1. 2. Sweat gland to secrete sweat & Sebaceous gland to secrete sebum. -Sweat is an aqueous fluid containing NaCl, lactic acid &amino acid.it also serve as coolant for body. -sebum is waxy substance containing sterols, waxes hydrocarbons &fatty acid. -The intergumentry system in aquatic animals are helpful for eliminating ammonia. Liver is principal organ of excretion of cholesterol, inactivated steroid hormones, bile pigments, drugs & some vitamin . It secretes all these into bile,which flows into the small intestine from there it sent out with the faeces. Inferior vena cava Hepatic vein Liver Hepatic portal vessel INTESTINE • Lungs excrete mainly carbon dioxide & water vapour. • It sends out certain volatile substances.