Download # 1 - THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF

#1-THENEOLITHICREVOLUTIONANDTHERISEOFCIVILIZATION
KEYIDEAWhenhumanscontrolednature,itledtoafundamentalchangeinhowtheylivedcalledtheNeolithicRevolution.
Scientistsstudystonesandbonestolearnaboutthelifeoftheearliesthumans.HumansevolvedfirstinAfricaandspreadtootherpartsofthe
world.Forthousandsandthousandsofyearshumanslivedanomadiclifestyle.Theywereconcernedfirstwithfindingfoodandprotecting
themselvesfromthedangersoflifeinthewild.Theyusedfire,builtshelters,madeclothes,anddevelopedspokenlanguage.Thewayhumanslived
changedovertimeasnewtoolsreplacedoldandpeopletestednewideas.Latermodernhumansincreasedthepaceofchange.
ThepeoplewhohadlivedintheearlypartoftheOldStoneAge(PaleolithicAge)werenomads.They
movedfromplacetoplace,neverstayinginonespotforlong.Theywerealwayslookingfornew
sourcesoffood.Theyfoundtheirfoodbyhuntingandgatheringnuts,berries,leaves,androots.They
createdalargekitoftoolstohelpthemintheirsearch.Toolsweremadeofusedstone,bone,and
wood.Theymadeknivestocutmeat,hookstocatchfish,andevenatooltomakeothertools.With
boneneedles,theysewedanimalhidesintoclothes.Withspears,hunterscouldkillanimalsatgreater
distances.Withsticks,thosewhogatheredplantsforfoodcoulddigplantsoutoftheearth.
Earlyhumansalsocreatedworksofart.Thisartgivesusafascinatingglimpseintotheirworld.These
earlyhumansmadenecklacesoutofseashells,theteethoflions,ortheclawsofbears.Theytookthe
tusksofmammoths-hairyelephantlikeanimals-andgroundthemdowntomakebeads.Themost
remarkableartfromtheStoneAge,though,ispaintings.Thousandsofyearsago,artistsmixed
charcoal,mud,andanimalbloodtomakepaint.Theyusedthispainttodrawpicturesofanimalson
thewallsofcavesoronrocks.
Figure1CaveArtfromSouthernFrance
circa30,000yearsagoinChauvetCave,
SouthernFrance
Humanslivedthiswayfortensofthousandsofyears.Theylivedinsmallgroupsofonly20or30people.Theyoftenreturnedtoacertainarea
duringthesameseasoneachyearbecausetheyknewitwouldberichwithfoodatthattime.Overtheyears,somehumansrealizedthattheycould
leaveplantseedsinanareaoneyearandfindplantsgrowingtherethenextyear.Thiswasthebeginningofanewpartofhumanlife:farming.
Scientiststhinkthattheclimatebecamewarmerallaroundtheworldataboutthesametime.Insteadofrelyingongatheringfood,peoplebeganto
producefood.Alongwithgrowingfood,theyalsobegantodomesticateanimals.Theyraisedhorses,dogs,goats,andpigsforavarietyofhuman
uses.
ArchaeologistshavestudiedasiteinthenortheasternpartofthemoderncountryofIraq.ItiscalledJarmo.Thepeoplewholivedinthisregion
beganfarmingandraisinganimalsabout7000B.C.Humanbeingswereenteringanewage.Wecallthisfundamentalchangeinhowtheylived,the
NeolithicRevolutionorthe(First)AgriculturalRevolution.
Peoplebegantofarminmanyspotsallovertheworld.InAfrica,peoplebegangrowingwheat,barley,andothercropsalongtheNileRiver.In
China,farmersbegantogrowriceandagraincalledmillet.InMexicoandCentralAmerica,peoplegrewcorn,beans,andsquash.InthehighAndes
MountainsofSouthAmerica,theygrewtomatoesandpotatoes.Eachgroupdevelopedfarmingonitsownandinitsownhearth.
Figure1.2HearthsofAgriculture
Thestudyofonevillage,CatalHuyuk(inwhatisnowTurkey)revealswhatearlyfarmingcommunitieswerelike.Thevillagegrewonthegoodland
nearariver.Somefarmersgrewwheat,barley,andpeas.Othersraisedsheepandcattle.Becausethesefarmersproducedasurplusoffoodforall
thepeople,otherscouldbegindevelopingotherskills.Thisiscalledjobspecialization.Somemadepotsoutofclaythattheybaked-thefirst
pottery-whileothersworkedasweavers.Someartistsdecoratedthevillage.Archaeologistshavefoundwallpaintingsthatshowanimalsand
huntingscenes.Theyhavefoundevidencethatthepeoplehadareligion,too.
Somepeopleinthevillageworkedastraders.Nearthevillagewasarichsourceofobsidian,astonemadefromvolcanicrock.Piecesofthisrock
couldbemadeintoaverysharpcuttingtoolorpolishedtobeusedasmirrors.Peopleinthevillagetradedtherocktothosewholivedfaraway.
Lifeintheearlyfarmingvillageshadproblems,too.Ifthefarmcropfailedorthelackofraincausedadrought,faminewouldoccurandpeople
wouldstarve.Floodsandfirescoulddamagethevillageandkillitspeople.Withmorepeopleandanimalslivingclosertoeachotherthanbefore,
diseasesspreadeasily.Still,someoftheseearlyvillagesgrewintogreatcities.
KEYIDEAFarmingvillagesproducedextrafoodanddevelopednewtechnologies.Thisresultedintheriseofcivilization.
Historiansbelievethattheriseofcivilizationfollowedasimilarpatternwhereveritoriginated.Overtime,farmersdevelopednewtools,hoesand
plowsticks,thathelpedthemgrowevenmorefood.Theydecidedtoplantlargerareasofland.Thepeopleinsomevillagesbegantoirrigatethe
land,bringingwatertonewareas.Peopleinventedthewheelforcartsandthesailforboats.Thesenewinventionsmadeiteasiertotravel
betweendistantvillagesandtotrade.
Withasurplusoffood,peoplelivedlongerandthepopulationgrew.Somepeoplewereabletospecializeintasksbeyondraisingfood.Others
becameleaders.Theyorganizedthegroup'seffortstogrowfood,defendagainstinvaders,orplanforthefuture.Lifebecamemorecomplexasthe
villagesbegantogrow.Peopleweredividedintosocialclasses,somewithmorewealthandpowerthanothers.Peoplebegantoworshipgodsand
goddessesthattheyfeltwouldmaketheircropssafeandtheirharvestslarge. Historiansconsideracivilizationtohavethesefivefeatures:
1.
advancedcities,whichcanholdmanypeopleandservedascentersoftrade;
2.
specializedworkers,whocanfocusondifferentkindsofwork;
3.
complexinstitutions,whichcangivethepeopleagovernment,anorganizedreligion,andaneconomy;
4.
record-keeping,whichcanleadtootherpurposesforwriting;and
5.
advancedtechnology,whichcanproducenewtoolsandtechniquesforsolvingproblems.
EarlyRiverValleyCivilizations(3500B.C.-450B.C.) Manyoftheplaceswherefarmingworkedbestwereinthevalleysofmajorrivers.Therefore,theworld'sfirstcivilizationsdevelopedinfour
differentregionseachlinkedtorivers.CivilizationwouldlaterdevelopindependentlyintheAmericasbutthiswasnotalongrivervalleys.Each
culturemetproblemscausedbythegeographyofitsparticulararea.
City-StatesinMesopotamia
KEYIDEAThefirstcivilizationintheworldaroseinMesopotamia.WecallthiscivilizationSumer.
ThereisanarcofrichlandinSouthwestAsiathatiscalledtheFertileCrescent.Twoofitsrivers,theTigrisandtheEuphrates,flowsoutheast
towardthePersianGulfthroughmodernIraq.EachspringthesnowinthenearbyTurkishmountainsmelts,swellingtherivers.Thisfloodingleaves
richmudintheplainbetweentherivers.Becauseofthis,humansbegantosettleinthatplain,knownasMesopotamia,whichmeans“theland
betweentherivers.”Theygrewwheatandbarley.Itwasherethatthefirstcivilizationbeganaround3,500B.C.
Sumerhadallthefeaturesofacivilization.Sumeriancivilizationtooktheformofcity-states.Thesecitieshadcontroloverasurroundingareaand
couldactindependentlymuchlikeacountrydoestoday.OneoftheearlycitiesofSumerwasnamedUr.Itwassurroundedbywallsbuiltofmud
driedintobricks.Itheldabout30,000people.Theywereallsupportedbythefoodraisedbyfarmersoutsidethecitywalls.Slowlysomepeople
rosetopowerinmanyofthesecity-states.Officialsofthecitygovernmentplannedallofthisactivity.Theybecamerulers,asdidtheirchildren
afterthem.Ruleofanareabythesamefamilyiscalledadynasty.
Insidethecity,peoplehurriedabouttheirbusylives.OneofthenewtechnologiesthatthepeopleofSumercreatedwastheabilitytomakeametal
calledbronze.ThereforethegrowthofearlycivilizationsisoftenreferredtoastheBronzeAge.Metalworkersmadebronzepointsforspears,
whilepottersmadeclaypots.Tradersmetpeoplefromotherareas.TheytradedthespearpointsandpotsforgoodsthatUrcouldnotproduce.
Sometimestheirdealswerewrittendownbypeoplecalledscribes.TheywereeducatedinthenewformofwritingthatSumerhaddeveloped.Ur's
mostimportantbuildingwasthetemple.Therethepriestsledthecity'sreligiouslife.Templesalsoservedasstorageforgrains,fabrics,andgems
asofferingstothecity'sgods.
TheSumeriansbelievedinmanygods.Theywerepolytheistic.Theybelievedeachgodhadpoweroverdifferentforcesofnatureorpartsoftheir
lives.People,theythought,werejusttheservantsofthegods.Theybelievedthatthesoulsofthedeadwenttoajoylessplaceundertheearth's
crust.Theseviewsspreadtootherareasandshapedtheideasofotherpeoples.
Societywasdividedintosocialclasses,dividedintosuchsocialclassesasrulersandpriests,traders,craftworkers,artistsandslaves.Atthetop
werethepriestsandkings,afterwhomcamewealthymerchants.NextwereordinarySumerianworkersinfieldsandworkshops.Slavesmadeup
thelowestlevel.Womencouldentermostcareersandcouldownproperty,butthereweresomelimitsonthem.
ThepeopleofSumerinventedthesail,thewheel,andtheplow.Theyalsodevelopedthefirstwritingsystemonclaytablets.Theyinvented
arithmeticandgeometry,whichtheyusedtohelpthembuildlargestructures.
Centuriesoffightingbetweenthecity-statesmadetheSumeriansweak.In2350B.C.,theconquerorSargondefeatedSumerandcapturedother
citiestothenorth.Bybringingtogethermanydifferentgroups,hemadetheworld'sfirstempire.Anempireexistswhenonegroupexertscontrol
overthepopulationandterritoryofothers.
KEYIDEAOthercivilizationsarosealongrivervalleysinEgypt(theNileRiver),theIndusRiverinmoderndayPakistanandtheHuangHeand
YangtzeRiversinNorthernChina.
#2-BELIEFSYSTEMS
TheOriginsofJudaism
KEYIDEATheHebrewsbecametheonlyancientpeopleintheirregiontobelieveinonegod,apracticeknownasmonotheism.
·
Anotherpeopleenteredtheworldscene.Theymadeaclaimtoanimportantpieceofland,theareanowcalledPalestine.Thisregionsatonthe
easternedgeoftheMediterraneanSeaandontheRedSea,whichledtotheIndianOcean.Asaresult,itwasconnectedtothetradeofmanylands.
ThepeoplewhosettledhereweretheHebrews,andtheybelievedthatthelandhadbeenpromisedtothembyGod.TodaytheJewishpeopleare
thedescendantsoftheancientHebrews.
TheHebrewswereamongtheworld'searliestpeoplestopracticemonotheism.TheirstorybeganinMesopotamia,whereamannamedAbraham
lived.GodtoldhimtomovehisfamilytoPalestine,wherehewouldprosper.AbrahampromisedthatheandhispeoplewouldalwaysobeyGod.
God,intum,promisedtoalwaysprotectthemfromtheirenemies.
OnerecurringthemeinJewishhistoryisthatofexileandreturn.LaterwhentheHebrewssufferedfromthefailureoftheircrops.Theymovedto
Egypt,butovertimetheyweremadeintoslaves.Aftermanyyears,theyleftinamassdeparturethatJewscalledtheExodus.Accordingtothe
sacredbookoftheJews,amannamedMosesledthemoutofEgyptandreceivedtheTenCommandmentsfromGod.Thesewerethelawsthatthe
Hebrewsweretofollow.Forthesecondtime,Godpromisedtoprotectthesepeopleinreturnfortheirobediencetohislaws.
AfterMosesdied,thepeoplefinallyreachedPalestineandsettleddown.Theybegantoadoptnewwaysoflife.Theyoftenfoughtwithother
groupsofpeoplelivinginthearea,aseachgrouptriedtocontrolthebestlandandotherresources.TheHebrewswereorganizedintotwelve
groups,calledtribes.TheHebrewshadotherleaderscalledprophets.TheysaidthattheyweremessengerssentbyGod,totellthepeoplehowhe
wantedthemtoact.Theseprophetstoldthepeoplethattheyhadtwoduties:toworshipGodandtodealinjustandfairwayswitheachother.
Withthismessage,religionwaschanging.Insteadofbeingapartofliferunbypriestswhofollowedcertainrituals,itwasnowamatterofeach
personlivingamorallife.
Fromabout1020to922B.C.,theHebrewswereunitedunderthreekings.Thefirst,Saul,droveoffenemypeoples;thesecond,David,made
Jerusalemthecapital;andthethird,Solomon,builtamagnificenttempletobeusedtoworshipGod.
AfterSolomon’sdeath,though,thekingdomsplitintotwoparts.Forthenexttwocenturies,thesekingdomshadtheirupsanddowns.Finally,
though,theywereconqueredbyoutsideforces.TheNeo-Babylonians(akatheChaldeans)destroyedSolomon'sgreattempleandforcedthe
HebrewstoleavethelandandsettleinBabylon.ThisperiodoftimeinJewishhistoryisknownastheBabylonianCaptivity.Theylivedtherefor
severaldecadesuntiltheChaldeansthemselveswereconquered.Thenewruler,aPersian,allowed40,000oftheHebrewstoreturnhome.They
rebuiltthetempleandthewallsofthecityofJerusalem.
Inancienttimes,manycivilizationsviedforcontrolovertheFertileCrescentandNileRiverarea.
Egypt,situatedalongtheNileRiverinnortheastAfrica,often
exerteditsinfluenceintotheFertileCrescent.Assyriacreateda
powerfularmyandconquereditsneighborsintheFertile
Crescent.ThePersiansunitedmanylandsintheregionand
acceptedthedifferencesofmanydifferentpeoplesasrulerstried
togovernwisely.
DuringthePersianEmpire,anewreligionaroseinSouthwest
Asia.AprophetnamedZoroastertriedtoexplainwhytheworld
workedasitdid.Thereweretwopowerfulgods,hesaid-oneof
truthandlightandoneofevilanddarkness.Theywereina
constantstruggletotakepowerovereachperson'ssoulandover
alllifeonearth.Howapersonwouldbejudgeddependedon
whichsideheorshechose.Whentheydied,thosewhochose
truthandlightwouldenteraparadise.Zoroastrianism,andits
beliefthatlifeisastrugglebetweengoodandevil,hadinfluence
onlaterreligions.
Figure2.1FertileCrescent
RootsofHinduismandBuddhism
KEYIDEAIndo-Europeanpeoplesmovedintonewareas,includingEurope,India,andSouthwestAsia.Theymetpeoplealreadylivingthere.
Whilesomepeoplesbuiltcivilizationsinthegreatrivervalleys,otherslivedonthehugeplainsofwesternAsia.Theyrodehorsesandtendedcattle,
sheep,andgoats.Theyspokemanydifferentlanguages,butallof
themcamefromthesameoriginallanguage.Thesepeopleare
calledtheIndo-Europeans.Then,forsomereason,startingabout
1700B.C.,theybegantoleavetheirhomes.Theymovedintosome
ofthesettledareasandbegantoconquerthem.
OnegroupofIndo-EuropeanpeoplenamedtheAryansmovedinto
modemIndia.Theyfirstcapturedthelandofthepeopleofthe
IndusValley.Theyweredividedintothreeclassesofpeople:
priests,warriors,andpeasantsortraders.Theycametoseethe
non-Aryanslivingintheareaasafourthclass.Overtime,they
developedcomplexrulesforhowpeopleintheseclasses,orcastes,
couldinteractwithoneanother.Peoplewerebornintotheircaste
forlife.Some"impure"peoplelivedinagroupoutsidethisclass
system.Theywerebutchers,gravediggers,andtrashcollectors.
Becausetheydidworkthatwasthoughttobeunclean,theywere
called"untouchables."Theywerekeptawayfromcontactwiththe
membersofotherclasses.
Overmanycenturies,theAryanstookmoreandmoreofwhatisnowIndia.Aroundthistime,anepicpoemMahabharatawaswritten.Ittellsthe
storyofwarbetweentwosetsofcousins.Thepoemrevealstheblendingofculturesatthetimeandsetsdownidealsthatweretobecome
importantinHindulife.
KEYIDEAReligiousbeliefsaroseinIndiaduringtheageofAryansettlement.LatertheseideasdevelopedintothereligionsofHinduismand
Buddhism.
Hinduismisacollectionofreligiousbeliefsthatformsnosinglesystem.Unlikemanyreligions,itwasnotfoundedbyjustoneperson.Itisareligion
thatallowsgreatvarietyofworshipandbeliefsforitsfollowers.However,certainideasbecamecommontoallHindus.Thereligiousideasthattook
shapearedescribedinfourcollectionscalledVedasandlaterinterpretedinacollectionofessaysknownastheUpanishads.Theseswritingsremain
animportantexpressionoffaithtomillionsofIndianstoday.
Hindusbelievethateachpersonhasasoul.However,thereisalsoalargersoul,calledBrahman,thatbringstogetheralltheindividualsouls.A
person'sgoalistowinescapefromlifeonEarthandunitewiththelargersoul.Itcantakealongtimetoreachthatescape.Hindusbelievethatthe
soulisbornagain,orreincarnated,intoanotherbodyafterdeath.Inthenextlife,thesoulhasanotherchancetolearnitslessons.Accordingto
Hindus,howapersonbehavesinonelifehasaneffectontheperson'snextlife,thisiscalledkarma.Someonewhowasevilwillberebornintoa
poorposition.Someonewhodidgooddeeds,however,willbenefitinthenextlife.
AnotherreligionthataroseinIndiawasJainism.ItwasstartedbyMahavira,amanwholivedfromabout599to527B.C.Hebelievedthatevery
creatureintheworld,evenanimals,hadasoul.Becauseofthat,peoplemustbesurenottoharmanycreature.Today,Jainstakejobsthatare
certainnottohurtlivingthings.
Buddhism,aroseaboutthesametimeasHinduismandJainism.Buddhismhasmillionsandmillionsoffollowersallaroundtheworld.Itwasstarted
around528B.C.bySiddharthaGautama.Siddharthasearchedforawaythatwouldallowhimtoescapethesufferingofhumanlife.Hespentmany
yearssearchingforthisanswer.Finally,hesatdownandmeditatedunderatree.After49daysofthismeditation,hehadhisanswer.Hewasnow
calledtheBuddha,whichmeansthe"enlightenedone,"andhebegantoteachothers.
ThenewteachingwasbasedontheFourNobleTruths:
1.
Alllifeissufferingandsorrow.
2.
Sufferingiscausedbypeoplehavingdesiresinthematerialworld.
3.
Thecureforsufferingistoendalldesires.
4.
ThewaytoendalldesiresistofollowtheEightfoldPathleadingtoreleasefromselfishness.
·
AswithHinduism,theBuddhataughtthatthesoulwouldberebornintoanewlife.Thischainofnewliveswouldcontinueuntilthesoul,likethe
Buddha,reachedcompleteunderstandingornirvana.
Theseideasattractedmanyfollowers.ManypeoplewholivedinthelowerclassesofIndiansocietysawtheseideasasachancetoescapefromthe
limitsplacedonthem.HisteachingalsospreadinsouthernIndia,wheretheAryansdidnothavemuchinfluence.Somefollowerstooktheideasto
otherlands.InthecenturiesafterBuddha'sdeathin483B.C.,BuddhismappearedinSoutheastAsia.,itwascarriedtoChinaandthentoKoreaand
Japan.Merchantsandtradersplayedanimportantroleinspreadingthereligion.Strangely,inIndiawhereBuddhismwasfounded,thereligion
faded.ItwaspossiblyjustabsorbedintoHinduism.However,manyplacesthatareimportanttoBuddhismareinIndia,andBuddhistsfromaround
theworldtraveltheretovisitlocationsconnectedtothelifeofBuddha.
TheEvolutionofHinduismandBuddhism
KEYIDEAEmpiresroseandfellinIndia.None,however,unitedIndiaforverylong.Indianreligions,culture,andsciencedevelopedandchanged.
Throughtrade,theseideasreachedotherlands.
Overtime,thereligionsofHinduismandBuddhismbecamemoreandmoredistantfromthecommonpeople.Thespecialclassofpriestscontrolled
Hinduism.FollowersoftheBuddhafounditdifficulttofindthepromisedgoalofreleasefromthisworld.AsnewpeoplesmovedintoIndia,they
broughtnewideas.Theseideashadanimpactonthesereligions.
TheBuddhahadtaughtthatatoughcourseofspirituallifewasthewaytoescapefromthesufferingoftheworld.Self-denialwasdifficultformany
peopletofollow,however.ManypeoplecametoworshiptheBuddhahimselfasagod,
eventhoughhehadforbiddenit.Thentheycametobelievethatotherpeoplecould
becomeBuddhasthemselvesthroughgoodworksandsacrifice.
·
TheseideascreatedanewkindofBuddhism,andthereligionbrokeintotwowaysofbelief.
Sometookthenewdoctrine,calledMahayana,andothersheldontothestricterbeliefs,
calledTheraveda.However,withthenewerapproach,Buddhismbecameapopular
religion.Allbelievershadthechancetobesaved.Thischangecausedanincreaseinart.
Buddhistswithmoneybuilttemplesandshrinesandthenpaidartiststodecoratethem
withsculpturesandpaintings.
Hinduismchangedtoo.ForcenturiesHinduismhadbeenareligionofmanygods.Now
otherreligionsbasedononlyonegodwerebecomingmoreimportant.ManyHindusbegan
toemphasizethreegodsinparticular.Bydevotingthemselvestooneofthesegods,people
begantofeelthereligionmoredirectlyintheirlives.
Indiawasalsoacenteroftradeandlearning.IttradedcottonclothandanimalstoChinaforsilk.TradersbroughtspicesfromSoutheastAsiato
IndiaandthensoldthemtoRomeandotherwesternpeoples.ThistradewassobusythatlargenumbersofRomancoinshavebeenfoundinIndia.
TheIndiansalsotradedtheirowncottonclothinAfricaforivoryandgold.TheysentriceandwheattoArabiafordatesandhorses.Theycarried
outthistradebylandandsea.
Alongwithgoods,Indiansspreadtheirculture
includingreligion.SomepeoplethattheIndians
wereincontactwithadoptedHinduism,andmany
begantofollowBuddhism.Indianartenjoyeda
periodofgreatvigorduringthesecenturies.Poets
andplaywrightswrotebeautifulworksof
literature,whileotherartistslaidthefoundations
fortheclassicalformofdanceinIndia.The
scientistsofIndiahadmanyachievements.They
provedthattheearthwasindeedroundmany
hundredyearsbeforeEuropeanrealizedit.They
madegreatadvancesinmathematics,too.They
inventedtheideaofzeroandofdecimalnumbers.
Indiandoctorsbecamehighlyskilled.Theyknew
morethan1,000diseasesandusedhundredsof
medicinesfromplantstohelptheirpatients.The
art,architectureanddevelopmentofmanylands
inSoutheastAsiashowtheinfluenceofIndia.
TheOriginofEastAsianBeliefSystems
KEYIDEAWarandturmoilinChinahelpedproducenewphilosophiesandadrivetobringtogethertheChinesepeople.
InthefirstmillenniumB.C.,China'sZhouDynastycollapsedintoatimeofchaosandturmoilcalled"thetimeofthewarringstates."Chinabecamea
landoftroubles.LongheldChinesevaluesofsocialorder,harmonyamongpeople,andrespectforleaderswereforgotten.
Somethinkers,however,triedtofindwaystorestorethesevalues.
TheChinesesystemofwritingdifferedfromthoseofothergroups.Symbolsorideogramsstoodforideas,notsounds.Asaresult,themany
differentgroupsinChina,whoallhadaspecialspokenlanguage,couldstillunderstandthesamewriting.Butthewrittenlanguagehadthousands
ofsymbolswhichmadeitveryhardtolearn.Onlyspeciallytrainedpeoplelearnedtoreadandwrite.
OneofthemostimportantofthesethinkerswasConfucius.Bornin551B.C.,hebecameawell-educatedmanwhothoughtdeeplyaboutthe
troublesofChina.Hebelievedthatatimeofpeacecouldreturnifthepeoplewouldworkatfivebasicrelationships:rulerandsubject,fatherand
son,husbandandwife,olderandyoungerbrothers,andfriendandfriend.Respectingyourproperroleintheserelationships,Confuciusbelieved,
wouldbringorderandstabilitytoChinesesociety.
Healsotriedtochangegovernmentforthebetter.Usinghisideas,theChinesebuiltasysteminwhichpeoplecouldworkinthegovernmentonlyif
theyhadagoodeducation.Overtime,theideasofConfuciusspreadtoothercountriesofEastAsia.
AnotherthinkerofthisperiodwasLaozi,whowasmoreinterestedinputtingpeopleintouchwiththepowerfulforcesofnature.Naturefollowsa
universalforcecalledtheDao,or"theWay,"saidLaozi.Peopleusuallydonotfollowthisforce,buttheycanlearntodoso.
AthirdsetofideascamefromagroupofpeoplecalledtheLegalists.TheysaidthatthewaytorestoreorderinChinawastohaveastrong
government.Arulershouldrewardthosewhodowhattheyaresupposedtodo,theLegalistssaid,andpunishharshlythosewhodowrong.
Thesethreewaystorestorevalueswerejustphilosophicaldebates.So,forpracticaladviceinsolvingproblems,peopleinChinacouldconsulta
bookcalledIChing.ItwasbasedontheideaofYinandYang,twopowersthatbalancedtogethertomakeharmonyintheuniverse.Yang
representedheaven,males,light,andaction.Yinstoodfortheearth,females,darkness,andbeingpassive.Byhavingthesetwoforcesinbalance,a
personcouldreachharmony.
#3-EUROPEBEFORETHEMODERNERA
TheMediterraneanWorldintheClassicalEra
ClassicalGreece(2000B.C.-300B.C.)
AruggedGreeklandscapecausedthecreationofindependentcity-states.Theyconstantlyfoughtoneanotherbutunitedtodefeatinvadersfrom
Persia.DuringGreece'sGoldenAge,AthensbecamethehomeofcultureanddemocraticideasandGreekcivilizationflourished.Ademocracyisa
governmentcontrolledbythepeople.ThegovernmentofAthens,however,wasnotafulldemocracy.Allcitizenswerefreetojoinin,butonlyonefifthofAthenianswerecitizens.Womenhadnoroleinpoliticallife.Finally,manywholivedinAthenswereslaveswhohadnorightsatall.
AfteryearsofwarwithanotherGreekcity-state,Sparta,Atheniancivilizationcollapsed.ThisallowedAlexandertheGreatofMacedoniato
conquertheGreekcity-states,thenthePersianEmpire,EgyptandeventuallymakehiswaytotheIndusValleyinnorthwestIndia.Afterhisdeath,a
newHellenisticcultureblendedculturalinfluencesfromtheterritoriesheconqueredwiththatofancientGreece.
RomeandEarlyChristianity(500B.C.-A.D.500)
KEYIDEATheearlyRomansmadearepublic.Itgrewinpowerandspreaditsinfluence.Asitbecameanempire.Itsgovernmentsociety,
economy,andculturechanged.
TheRomansmadearepublic,agovernmentmadeofrepresentativeschosenbythepeople,inItalyandrosetopower.However,theinternal
struggleforcontrolovertheirgrowingwealthandpowerchangedthegovernmentfromarepublictoanempire.Theempireenjoyedalongperiod
ofpeace,duringwhichanewreligion,Christianity,arose.Theempirefinallycollapsedinthewesternpart,butRomeleftalegacyofmany
importantideasandachievements.
TheRiseofChristianity
KEYIDEAChristianityaroseintheeasternpartoftheRomanEmpireandspreadthroughoutRomanlands.
OneofthegroupswhoselandwasconqueredbytheRomanEmpirewastheJews.ManyJewswantedtoridtheirlandoftheRomans.Somehoped
forthecomingoftheMessiahor“savior”tohelpthemdothis.Accordingtotradition,GodpromisedthattheMessiahwouldrestorethekingdom
oftheJews.Inthispoliticalclimate,around4B.C.,Jesuswasborn.
Atage30,JesusbegantotravelthecountrysidepreachinghismessageoftheloveofGod.Accordingtoclosefollowers,heperformedmany
miracles.Hetaughtthatthosewhoregrettedtheirsinswouldenteraneternalkingdomafterdeath.Hisfamegrew,andmanyJewsthoughthewas
thelong-awaitedMessiah.JewishreligiousleadersdidnotbelievethathisteachingswerethoseofGod.Romanleadersfearedhisholdonthe
people.Jesuswasarrestedandsentencedtodeath.Afterhiscrucifixion,hisfollowerssaidthatJesusrosefromthedead,appearedtothemagain
andthenascendedtoheaven.TheysaidthisprovedhewastheMessiah.Theycalledhim"Christ,"whichisGreekfor"savior,"andhisfollowers
cametobecalledChristians.
AtfirsthisfollowerswereallJewish.Later,underPaul,theChristiansbegantolooktoallpeople,evennon-Jews,tojointhechurch.Theleadersof
theearlychurchtraveledthroughouttheempire
spreadingtheteachingsofJesus.
Fromtimetotime,Romanleaderstriedtopunishthe
Christians.TheywereangeredwhenChristiansrefused
toworshiptheRomangods.Romanshadthemputto
deathorkilledbywildanimalsinthearena.However,
thereligionspreaduntil,afteralmost200years,
millionsofpeopleacrosstheempirebelieved.It
spreadbecauseitacceptedallbelieverswhetherrich
orpoor,manorwoman.Itgavehopetothosewithout
power.Itappealedtopeoplewhowerebotheredby
thelackofmoralityinRomanlife.Itwonfollowers
becauseitofferedapersonalrelationshipwithGod
andthepromiseoflifeafterdeath.
Astheearlychurchgrew,itdevelopedanofficial
structure.Priestsledsmallgroupsofworshippersin
individualchurches.Bishops,basedinmostmajor
cities,controlledallthechurchesintheirarea.The
bishopofRome,orthePope,headedthechurch.
InA.D.313,Christianityenteredanewera,theRoman
emperorConstantinesaidthatChristianswouldno
longerbepersecuted.Hegavehisofficialapprovalto
Figure3.2SpreadofChristianity
Christianity.Afewdecadeslater,itbecamethe
empire'sofficialreligion.WhileChristianitygrewinpower,italsofeltsomegrowingpains.Churchleaderssometimesdisagreedoverbasicbeliefs
andarguedaboutthem.Fromtimetotimetheymetincouncilstosettlethesematters.
TheDeclineoftheRomanEmpire
KEYIDEATheempirebecameweakenedbyinternalproblemsandbythearrivalofwarlikenomads.Theempirewasdividedandlaterfellapart.
BeginningaboutA.D.180Romeenteredaperiodofdecline.Itsufferedeconomicproblems.Tradeslowed,thesupplyofgoldandsilverwentdown,
andthepriceofgoodsincreased.Foodsuppliesdroppedasoverworkedsoil,warfare,andhightaxescuttheamountofgrainandotherfoods
producedonfarms.Ontopofthat,theempirehad
militaryproblems.Germantribescausedtroubleonthe
frontierswhileRomangeneralsfoughtoneanotherfor
controloftheempire.
Figure3.3RomanEmpiredividedandBarbarianInvasions
Afteracenturyoftheseproblems,anewemperor,
Diocletian,tookthethrone.Hepassedmanynewlaws
tryingtofixwhatwaswrongwithRome.Heevendivided
theempireintoeasternandwesternhalvestomakeit
easiertogovern.Thesereformsdelayedtheendofthe
RomanEmpirebutcouldnotpreventitsfall.Theeastern
partoftheempireremainedstrongandunified,butin
thewesttroublecontinued.Germantribesmovedinto
theempire.Theyweretryingtoescapefiercenomadic
warriorsfromCentralAsia,theHuns,whoweremoving
intotheirland.TheRomanarmiesinthewestcollapsed,
andGermanarmiestwiceenteredRomeitself,looting
andburningtheonce-greatcity.Afterthedeathin453of
theirleader,Attila,theHunswentbacktocentralAsia.
However,theGermanshadarrivedforgood.By476
therewereGermanpeoplelivinginmanyareasof
Europe.ThatyearaGermangeneralremovedthelastwesternRomanemperorfromthethrone.
RomeandtheRootsofWesternCivilization
KEYIDEATheRomansdevelopedmanyideasandinstitutionsthathavebecomepartofWesterncivilization.
RometookfeaturesofGreekcultureandaddedideasofitsown.ThiscombinationofinfluenceshelpedshapeEuropeandtheWesternworld.
Romansculpture,forinstance,borrowedGreekpracticesbutwithadifference;Romanstatuesweremorerealistic.Romanwritingwasbasedon
Greekmodels,too.Romansbecamefamousfortheirskillatengineering.Theyusedarchesanddomestobuildlarge,impressivebuildings.Manyof
theseformsarestillusedtoday.Theyalsobuiltanexcellentsystemofroadsandbuiltseveralaqueductstocarrywaterfromdistantlakesorrivers
tolargecities.
Romeleftanothermarkontheworld.Manylanguages,fromSpanishtoRomanian,arebasedonLatin.EvenlanguagessuchasEnglishhavemany
wordstakenfromLatin.
Rome'smostlastinginfluence,though,wasinsettingcertainstandardsoflawthatstillinfluencepeopletoday.Theseincludetheideasthat
•
allpersonsshouldbetreatedequallybythelaw;·
•
apersonshouldbethoughtinnocentofacrimeuntilprovenguilty;
•
someonewhoaccusesanotherpersonofacrimehastoproveit;and
•
apersonshouldbepunishedonlyforactions,notforthoughtsoropinions.
ByzantineculturespreadsintoRussia(A.D.500–1500)
TheeasternpartoftheoldRomanEmpiremaintainedabrilliantcivilizationcenteredinConstantinople.WithaseparateChristianchurch,it
developedaculturedifferentfromthatofWesternEurope.SlavsandVikingsjoinedtocreateanewcultureinRussia,whichwasinfluencedbythe
EasternOrthodoxChurch.Turksenteredthearea,convertedtoIslam,andmadetheirownempire.
ByzantiumBecomestheNewRome
KEYIDEAConstantinopleruledaneasternempirethatsurvivedforoverathousandyearsandestablishedtheEasternOrthodoxtraditionwithin
Christianity.
IntheA.D.300s,theRomanemperorConstantinewasworriedaboutthegrowingpowerofGermantribes.HemovedtheRomanEmpire'scapital
totheeast,wherehecouldbettermeetthatthreat.Thelocationalsoputhimclosertotheeasternprovincesoftheempire,whichwerericher
thanthoseinthewest.Hebuiltagreatnewcapitalcity,Constantinople(nowIstanbul),onthesiteoftheoldportcityofByzantiumwhereEurope
meetsAsia.ConstantinoplebecamethecenterofanempireintheeasternareaoftheMediterraneanSeathatlastedforhundredsofyears.We
callittheByzantineEmpire.
TheRomanEmpirewasofficiallydividedin395.ThewesternareawasoverrunbyGermantribes.Itceasedtoexistafter476.However,the
Byzantineeasternpartremainedstrong.
AlthoughitwasbasedontheRomanEmpire,theByzantineEmpirehaddevelopedaculture
allitsown.FewpeopleintheByzantineEmpirespoketheLatinoftheoldRomanEmpire.
TheyspokeGreekandbelongedtotheEasternOrthodoxChurch,nottheCatholicChurch
thatwascenteredinRome.TheEasternChurchwasledbyanofficialnamedthepatriarch,
theleadingbishop.However,evenhehadtoobeytheemperor.SlowlytheEasternand
Romanchurchesgrewfurtherapart.In1054,thesplitbecamepermanent.Servicesinthe
EasternChurchwereconductedinGreek,notinLatinasintheRomanChurch.
Manyenemiesattackedtheempiretimeandtimeagainoverthecenturies.Germantribes,
theSassanidPersians,andlaterMuslimarmiesalltriedtogaincontrolofByzantineland.
Constantinopleremainedsafeatthistimedespitemanyattacks.Eventually,though,the
empireitselfshrank.By1350,theempireincludedonlythecapitalcityandlandsinthe
Balkans,apartofsoutheasternEurope.
KEYIDEARussiagrewoutofablendingofSlavicandByzantinecultureswithEasternOrthodoxtraditions.
SomemissionariestraveledfromtheByzantineEmpiretothenorth.TheymettheSlavicpeopleswholivedinRussiaandconvertedthemtothe
easternformofChristianity.Inthisway,theinfluenceoftheByzantineEmpireenteredRussiaasthatnationbegantoform.
TheSlavslivedinwhatistodayRussia.TheareastretchedfromtheUralMountainstotheBlackSeaonthesouthandtheBalticSeainthenorth.
Thesouthernregionsarehillygrasslands.Thenorthernareaisflatandcoveredwithtreesorswamps.Slow-movingriversintheregionhavemoved
peopleandgoodsforcenturies.
TheSlavslivedintheforestareas,workingasfarmersandtraders.Inthe800s,someVikingscalledtheRuscamefromthenorth.Theybuiltforts
alongtheriversandblendedwiththeSlavs.TheyfoundedthecitiesofNovgorodandKievandbecametherulersoftheland.Theybegantotrade
inConstantinople,bringingfurs,timber,andtheSlavswhoweretheirsubjects.Theysoldthesepeopleasslaves,infact,thewordslavecomesfrom
Slav.
Overtime,theVikingsadoptedtheSlavsculture.WhiledivisionsbetweenVikingsandSlavsdisappeared,thesocietywassharplysplitbetweenthe
greatmassofpeasantsandthefewnobles.
Thenworsetroublesappeared.NomadicfightersfromcentralAsia,theMongols,begantoconquermanydifferentareas.Inthemiddle1200s,they
reachedKiev.TheyquicklyoverrantheRussianstate,killingmanypeople.TheMongolsheldcontroloftheareaformorethan200years.
WhiletheMongolshadbeenfierceconquerors,theywerenotharshrulers.AslongastheRussianpeopledidnotrebelagainsttheMongols,they
couldkeeptheircustoms.TheMongolsallowedtheRussianstocontinuefollowingtheirEasternChristianreligion.TheChurchhelpedsettleany
differencesbetweentheMongolrulersandtheRussianpeople.ControlbytheMongolshadimportanteffectsonRussia.First,itisolatedthe
RussiansfromWesternEurope.Asaresult,Russiansocietydevelopedinitsownway.Second,rulebytheMongolsunitedmanydifferentareasof
RussiaunderonecentralauthoritycenteredinMoscow.Thatcityhadagoodlocationnearthreemajorrivers:theDnieper,Don,andVolga.
Inthelate1400s,underIvanIII,Russiagrewtobeamightyempire.In1453,theByzantineEmpirehadfallen,defeatedbytheTurks.In1472,Ivan
marriedthenieceofthelastByzantineemperor,linkinghimselftothathistoricthrone.Fromthenon,hecalledhimselfczar,whichwastheRussian
versionofCaesar.In1480,IvanfinallybrokewiththeMongols.Herefusedtopaythatyear'stribute.
BecausetheMongolsdidnotrespondmilitarily,RussiahadineffectwonitsindependencefromMongolrule.
EuropeanMiddleAges,500-1300
GermanpeoplesmovedintotheRomanEmpirecausingit
tofall.Smallkingdomsrose.Asdifferentgroupsinvaded
Europe,peoplesoughtprotectionandgaveupsomerights
topowerfullords,producingasystemcalledfeudalism.The
Churchprovedanimportantspiritualandpoliticalforcein
WesternEuropethroughouttheMiddleAges.
Europeansdevelopedfeudalism,apoliticalandmilitary
systemofprotectivealliancesandrelationships.Between
800and1000,Europewasthreatenedbynewinvasions.
MuslimscapturedSicilyinsouthernItaly.Magyarsattacked
landstotheeast.Fromthenorthcamethemostfeared
fightersofall,theVikings,orNorsemen.
TheVikingsleftSwedenandNorwayforsmall,quickraiding
parties,takinganythingofvaluefromvillagesand
monasteries.TheystruckterrorintheheartsofEuropeans.
Byaroundtheyear1000,though,theVikingshadsettled
downinmanypartsofEurope.TheyadoptedChristianityandstoppedraidingtobecometradersandfarmers.
Figure3.5InvasionsofEuropeduringtheMiddleAges
TheMagyars,nomadsfromtheeast,attackedandreachedasfarasItalyandwesternFrance.Theysoldlocalpeopleasslaves.Theseattacksand
thoseofMuslimsandVikingsmadelifeinWesternEuropedifficult.Peoplesufferedandfearedfortheirfutures.Withnostrongcentral
government,theywenttolocalleadersforprotection.
Europe'sfeudalsystembegan.Itwasbasedontheideathatalordgavelandtoanotherpersonoflowerstatus,calledavassal.Thevassalpromised
tosupplysoldierswhenthelordneededthem.Underfeudalism,societyin
WesternEuropewasdividedintothreegroups:thosewhofought-thenoblesand
knights;thosewhoprayed-theofficialsoftheChurch;andthosewhoworked-the
peasants.Peasantswerebyfarthelargestgroup.
Manypeasantsor“serfs”werenotfreetomoveaboutastheywished.Theywere
tiedtothelandoftheirlord.Thelord'slandwascalledthemanor,andmanors
becamethecentersofeconomiclife.Lordsgavepeasantsland,ahome,and
protectionfromraiders.Thepeasantsworkedthelandtogrowfood,givingpart
ofeachyear'scroptothelord.Theyalsopaidtaxeseveryyearandhadmuchof
theirlivescontrolledbythelord.Peasantslivedinsmallvillagesof15to30
families.Theyfoundeverythingtheyneededinthatsmallcommunityandrarely
traveledfarfromtheirhomes.Theircottageshadonlyoneortworoomswithonlystrawmatsforsleeping.Theyhadpoordiets.Theyendured
theselives,believingthatGodhadsettheirplaceinsociety.
Churchleadersandpoliticalleaderscompetedforpowerandauthority.WiththecentralgovernmentsofEuropeweak,theChurchbecamethe
mostimportantforceunifyingEuropeansociety.AnearlypopehadsaidthatGodhadmadetwoareasofinfluenceintheworld-religiousand
political.Thepopewasinchargeofspiritualmatters,hesaid.Theemperorandotherrulerswereinchargeofpoliticalaffairs.Overtheyears,
though,thedifferencewasnotsoclear.Popesoftentriedtoinfluencetheactionsofrulers,whoclashedwiththeminastruggleforpower.
ThewesternorRomanCatholicChurchwasorganizedintoastructurethatmirroredsociety.Atthebottomwerethepriestswholedservicesat
localchurches.Abovethemwerebishops,whooversawallthepriestsinalargearea.Atthetopwasthepope,theheadoftheChurch.
TheFormationofWesternEurope,(A.D.800–1500)
KEYIDEATheCatholicChurchunderwentreformandlaunchedcrusades(religiouswars)againstMuslims.
AnewspiritofreligionledtoreformsintheCatholicChurchandtowarsagainstMuslims.Prosperityfollowedimprovedfarmingandthegrowthof
tradeandcities.EnglandandFrancedevelopedasnationsandincludedsomegovernmentparticipationbythepeople.Inthe1300s,however,a
terribleplague,alongwar,andreligiousconflictendedthisAgeofFaith.
Beginninginthe1000s,anewsenseofspiritualfeelingaroseinEurope,whichledtochangesintheChurch.Popesbeganareformmovementby
foundingmonasteries,enforcinglawsagainstthe
marriageofpriestsandthesellingofChurchoffices,
reorganizingthestructureoftheChurchandcollectinga
taxfromallbelieverswhichitusedtocareforthesick
andpoor.
ThisnewAgeofFaithwasshowninanotherway,as
manytownsinEuropebuiltmagnificentcathedrals.In
theearly1100s,thesehugechurchesusedanewstyleof
architecturecalledGothic.Thesebuildingsweretall,
reachingtowardheaven.Theyhadwallscoveredwith
windowsofcolorfulstainedglass,whichletinbeautiful
light.
Therenewedfaithalsoledtowar.In1093,theByzantine
emperoraskedtheWestforhelpagainstMuslimTurks
whowerethreateningConstantinople,hiscapital.The
popeurgedtheleadersofWesternEuropetobeginaholywar.HewantedChristianstogaincontrolofJerusalemandtheentireHolyLand.This
wasthefirstofseveralCrusadesfoughtoverthenext200years.RulersandtheChurchfavoredtheCrusadesbecausetheysentwarlikeknightsout
oftheirlands.CommonpeoplejoinedtheCrusadesoutofdeepreligiousfeeling.
TheFirstCrusadebeganin1096anditsucceededinrecapturingJerusalem.AFourthCrusadeendedindisaster.In1204,theCrusaderarmies
attackednotonlytheMuslimsbuttheByzantineEmpireitselfandlootedConstantinople.Thishelpedmakealastingsplitbetweenwesternand
easternChristianchurches.
AlaterCrusadetookplaceinSpain.Christianrulers
triedtowinbackthelandthatMuslimshad
conqueredinthe700s.Thisfightlastedfromthe
1100suntil1492,whenthelastSpanishMuslimland
fell.ThousandsofJewshadlivedinSpanishMuslim
lands.ManybecameChristianssothattheycould
remainafterthereconquestwascompleted.
TheCrusadeshadmanyeffectsonEurope.The
failureoflateronescutthepowerofthepopes,and
thedeathsofmanyknightsreducedthepowerof
nobles.ContactwiththeEastrevivedtrade.
However,theChristians'harshtreatmentof
MuslimsintheHolyLandledtobitternessthathas
lastedtothepresent.
Figure3.7MedievalEuropeanCity
KEYIDEAEuropeancitieschallengedthefeudalsystemasagriculture,trade,finance,anduniversitiesdeveloped.
Atthesametime,Europeenjoyedanimprovedfoodsupplyresultingfromawarmerclimateandagriculturalinnovations.Alongwiththegrowthin
thefoodsupply,tradeandfinanceincreased.CraftworkersbegantomakegoodsthatweresentalloverEuropeintrade.
Intheearly1100s,thepopulationofWesternEuropegrewrapidly.Townsgrewlargerandmoreimportant.Townsweredirtyplaces,withnarrow
filthystreets.Builtentirelyofwood,theywerefirehazards.Still,manypeasantsfledtothetownsbecause,bylivingthereayearandaday,they
becamefree-nolongersubjecttothepowerofwealthylords.Wealthierpeopleinthetownsfoughtfor,andwon,therightnottopaytaxestolords
andtogovernthemselves.
KEYIDEAThekingdomsofEnglandandFrancebegantodevelopintonationsastheMiddleAgescametoaclose
Englandwasformedbytheblendingofcultures.DanishVikingscametotheislandinthe800s,unitingwiththeAnglo-Saxonswhohadcomethere
fromGermanyhundredsofyearsearlier.Overtime,thesepeoplesbecameonekingdom.In1066,thekingdied,andthedukeofalandinnorthern
FrancecalledNormandyinvadedandwoncontroloftheisland.WilliamtheConqueror,ashewascalled,declaredEnglandtobeallhis.
Thecontinentwastornapartbyreligiousstrifewithmultiplepopessimultaneouslyclaimingauthorityoverthechurch.
Peopleofthelate1300sexperiencedanevenmoresevereshock.Afearfuldisease,thebubonicplague,sweptacrossEuropestartingin1347and
rd
lastingfordecades.Thediseasekilledmillionsofpeople-about1/3 ofthepopulationofEurope.TheplaguehadaseriouseffectonEurope's
economy.Tradedeclined,pricesrose,andtownsbecamesmaller.Fewerpeoplemeantfewerworkers.Peasantsdemandedwagesortheir
freedom.Whennoblesresistedthesedemands,peasantsoftenrevolted.
WhenthekingofFrancediedin1328,heleftnoheir.EdwardIIIofEnglandclaimedthethrone-hewasagrandsonofPhilipIVofFrance.In1337,he
beganawar,knownastheHundredYearsWar,towinFrance.
Englishforceswonthreeimportantbattles.Atone,theirarchersusedlongbowstolauncharrowsthatdestroyedtheFrenchtroops-evenarmored
knights.By1429,theFrenchwereindesperateshape.TheirarmyheldthetownofOrleans,whichtheEnglishwereabouttocapture.Ateenagegirl
namedJoanofArcarrivedonthescene.Convincedbyvisionsofangelsthatshecouldsavetheday,shewasallowedtoleadthearmyofFrance,
whichwasvictorious.Withthat,theFrenchcrownedanewking.
TheHundredYears'Warfinallyendedin1453.IthadbeenfoughtmostlyinFranceandbroughtmuchsufferingtothatnation.However,thewar
producedastrongnationalfeelinginbothEnglandandFrance,asensethatthekingwasnotjustafeudallordbutalsotheleaderofanation.
Peopletendedtobepessimisticandfearfulofthefuture.AndtheChurchhadlostprestigeasitwasunabletostoptheplague.Thesefactors
helpedbringabouttheendoftheMiddleAges.
#4-AFRICA
DiverseSocietiesandWaysofLifeinAfrica
KEYIDEAAfricanpeoplesdevelopedmanydifferentwaysoflifeastheyadaptedtomanydifferentenvironments.
Africaisthesecondlargestcontinentintheworld.Ithasaboutone-fifthoftheearth'sland.Muchofthelandisahighplateau,withlowerland
nearthecoasts.Theriversthatflowalongthishighlandoftenformwaterfallsorrapids.Asaresult,boatscannotusetheseriverstotraveleitherto
orfromthecoast.Also,thecoastisnotgoodforboats.Ithasrelativelyfewharborsforsolargealandmass.Thesefactorshavecontributedto
Africa’srelativeisolationfromotherpartsoftheworld. Africahasmanydifferentenvironments.TheEquatorcrossesAfrica
andmuchofthecontinentliesinthetropics,wheretheweatheris
hotallyearround.Eveninthisarea,though,theenvironmentsare
widelydifferent.Therearehot,drydeserts;steamy,wetrain
forests;andhigh,coolmountains.AboutathirdofAfrica'slandis
desert.Thisharshlandholdsfewpeople.Italsoformsabarrierto
peoplewhowanttomovefromoneareatoanother.TheSahara
DesertinthenorthofAfricaisaboutone-thirdthesizeoftheUnited
States.DenserainforestscovermuchofthecentralpartofAfrica.
Thisareareceivesheavyrainfall.Treesgrowtotoweringheightsand
blocksunlightfromtheforestfloor.Asaresult,fewsmallplants
growunderneaththetalltrees.
ThenorthernandsouthernregionsofAfricahavelargenumbersof
people.Theyhavegoodsoilforfarmingandplentyofgrassfor
animalstoeat.Theyhavepleasantclimates.MostAfricansliveon
thegrasslandsthatcoveralmosthalfofthecontinent.Theygrow
grains,includingriceandwheat,andtendtocattle.Eachyear,
though,theSaharaDesertexpandsandtakesawayabitmoreof
thisgrassland.
ThefirsthumansinAfricagotfoodbyhuntinganimalsandgathering
plants.Eventoday,someAfricanpeoplesstillusethismethodfor
obtainingfood.Menhuntanimalswithspearsorbowsandarrows.
Womenandchildrengatherrootsandberries.
Figure4.1AfricanEcosystems
Overtime,thesepeoplelearnedtotameanimalsandraisethemfor
food.Theseancientherderskeptcattle,goats,orsheep.Likethehuntersandgatherers,theseherderswerenomadicpeople.Astheymoved,they
lookedforplentifulgrassandforwaterfortheiranimals.Whenfoodorwaterwasusedupinonearea,theymovedtoanother.
About10,000B.C.,somepeopleinAfricabegangrowingtheirownfoodinsteadofgatheringwildfood.Latertheclimatechanged,bringingmore
rainfalltotheSahara.Peoplefarmedthereuntiltheclimatechangedonceagainaround4000B.C.andthedesertreturned.Thepeoplethenleft
thedesertandheadedformanydifferentareas.TheywenttofarmintheNileValleyandWestAfricaoronthegrasslands.Somemovedtotherain
forest.
Africanpeopleshadmanydifferencesbecauseofthedifferentenvironmentsinwhichtheylived.ThepeoplewholivedsouthoftheSahara,though,
hadthesefeaturesincommon:
•
Thefamilywasthemostimportantunitofsociety.Insomegroups,familywasconsideredallpeoplewhocomefromcommonancestors.
Thisiscalledaclan.
•
Theybelievedthatonegodcreatedtheworld.Also,theyfeltthatplants,animals,andothernaturalforcesallhavespiritsthatplayan
importantroleinlife.Thebeliefthatthenaturalworldisinhabitedbyspiritsandtheycanaffecthumanlifeiscalledanimism.
•
Theyreliedonoralstorytelling,ratherthanwriting,topassonthetraditionsoftheirpeople.
Throughouthistory,variouspeopleshavedesiredtoleavetheirhomesandmovetoanewland.Whiletherearemanyreasonsthatpeoplemake
suchamove,theycanbegroupedintoseveralmaincausesincludingchangesintheenvironment,economicproblemsandpoliticalorreligious
differences.
ThesereasonshavepushedpeopletomovefromthebeginningofhumanlifeonEarth,andtheycontinuetodosotoday.Thelarge-scale
movementofpeopleinmoderntimescanbetracedinwrittenrecords.Instudyingtimesbeforewrittenhistory,though,researchersneedtolook
forothercluestothesemigrations.
Onecluetheyuseislanguage.LanguagehasgivenhistoriansawayofunderstandingtheearlyhistoryofAfrica.ManylanguagesspokeninAfrica
todaydevelopedfromthesameparentlanguagecalledProto-Bantu.ThepeoplewhospokeBantufirstlivedinapartofmodernNigeria.Inthe
firstfewcenturiesA.D.,theybegantomovesouthandeast.Overtime,theyspreadthroughoutAfricasouthoftheSaharaDesert,reachingthe
southerntiparound500yearsago.Theybroughttheirlanguageandtheirculturewiththem.
Onereasonthatthesepeoplemovedhadtodowithhowtheyfarmed.Theirmethodwascalledslash-and-burnagriculturewhichinvolvedclearing
forestlandbyburningdowntrees.Thisleftaplotofrichsoilthatwassuitableforgrowingfoodforafewyears.Afterthat,however,thesoilno
longercouldproducegoodcrops.Thepeoplethenneededtomovetoanewareatoclearanewpatchofground.
·
Anotherreasontheymovedwasthattheirfarmingwassosuccessful.Farminghelpedthemproducemorefoodthantheycouldbyhuntingand
gathering.Withmoretoeat,groupsbecamelargerandthelandmorecrowded.Theycouldnotmovenorth,wheretheSaharaDesertmadea
barrier.Sotheyhadtomovefartherandfarthersouth.
Astheyreachednewareas,theBantupeoplesmetotherpeoples.Sometimesthesemeetingswereviolent.TheBantus,whoknewhowtomake
iron,hadbetterweaponsthanthosetheymet,whoonlyhadstonetools.SomeofthepeoplesthattheymetarestillfoundinAfrica,buttheylive
insmallareaswithveryharshenvironments.TheBantustookthebetterland.
#5–THEMUSLIMWORLD(A.D.600–1700)
IntheharshenvironmentoftheArabianpeninsula,anewreligionarose.MuhammadunitedtheArabpeoplesinthebeliefthattherewasonlyone
God.Strengthenedbytheirfaith,theArabsbeganaconquestofpartsofthreecontinents.Inrulingthisvastempire,theArabspreservedthe
achievementsofmanyculturesandpromotedlearninginmanyfieldsofstudy.
TheRiseofIslam
KEYIDEAMuhammadunifiedtheArabicpeoplebothpoliticallyandthroughthereligionhefounded,Islam.
TheharshenvironmentoftheArabianpeninsulaleftitsmarkonthesocietyoftheArabpeoples.LocatedwhereAfrica,Asia,andEuropemeet,the
regionfelttheinfluenceofculturesfromallthreecontinents.Withthelandalmostcompletelycoveredbydesert,makingalivingwasdifficult.
Thepeoplewholivedinthedesert,calledBedouins,followedanomadicwayoflife.Theyherdedanimals,whichtheyledfromonefertileoasisto
anotherinsearchofpreciouswater.Overtime,manyofthesepeople,begantoliveintownsandcities.Peoplewholivedinthetownsengagedin
localandlong-distancetrade.TheBedouinsbecamefiercefighters,abletoprotecttheirherdsanddefendtheirrightstowaterfromtheattacksof
others.Theydevelopedasocietybasedonfamilygroupscalledclans.Courageandloyaltytothefamilywereimportantvalues.
Bytheearly600s,tradehadbecomeanimportantactivityontheArabianpeninsula.MerchantsfromtheByzantineandSassanidempirestothe
northbroughtgoodstoArabia.Theytradedinthecitiesforspicesandothergoods.Theyalsobroughtnewideas.Atthistime,theArabpeople
believedinmanygods.ReligiouspilgrimscametoMeccatoworshipatanancientshrinecalledtheKa'aba.Overtheyears,Arabshadintroduced
theworshipofmanygodsandspiritstotheKa'aba.Itcontainedmorethan360idolsbroughttherebyseveraltribes.
AroundtheyearA.D.570,MuhammadwasbornintothisArabsociety.ThoughamemberofapowerfulfamilyofMecca,hisearlylifewasdifficult.
Hewasorphanedatagesixandreceivedlittleschooling.However,hebecameasuccessfulmerchantandontradingmissionswasinfluencedbythe
monotheisticbeliefsofbothJudaismandChristianity.
Muhammadwasalwaysinterestedinreligion.Ataroundage40,hetookreligionashislife'smission.Onenight,theangelGabrielvisitedhimand
toldhimtoproclaimthewordofGodtohispeople.MuhammadbegantoteachthattherewasonlyoneGod-Allah.HisreligionwascalledIslam,
anditsfollowerstookthenameofMuslims.Heconvertedafewfriendsandfamilymembersandthenbegantopreachinpublic.Atfirst,many
peopleinMeccaviolentlyopposedMuhammad'sviews.TheyfearedMeccanswouldneglecttraditionalArabgods.Muhammadandhisfollowers
wereforcedtoleaveMeccaforYathrib(latercalledMedina)in622.Muhammadbecamealeaderofthatcity.
TheforcesofMeccaandMedinafoughtseveraltimesoverthenextfewyears.Gradually,Muhammadandhisfollowersgainedinpower.Mecca
fadedaswarraged.Finally,in630,theleadersofMeccasurrenderedtoMuhammad.HewenttothebuildingthatheldtheKa'abaanddestroyed
theidolstoothergods.ManyofthepeopleofMeccaadoptedIslam.TheybegantoworshipAllahastheonlyGod.ThoughMuhammaddied
shortlythereafter,in632,muchoftheArabianpeninsulawasalreadyunitedunderIslam.
Muslimshavefivedutiestoperform.Theseareknownasthe
FivePillarsofIslam.Thedutiesshowaperson'sacceptingof
thewillofGod:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ApersonmuststateabeliefthatthereisnoGod
butAllahandthatMuhammadishisprophet.
ApersonmustpraytoAllah,facingMecca,five
timeseveryday. Apersonmustgiveaidtopoorpeoplethrough
charity.
Apersonmustfasteverydayduringtheholy
monthofRamadan.
Apersonshouldperformthehajj-atriptotheholy
cityofMecca-atleastonceinhisorherlife.
Eventoday,forMuslims,theirprivateandreligiouslivesare
thesame.ManyreligiouslawstellMuslimshowtheymustlive.Somerulesforbidthemfromeatingporkordrinkingalcohol.EveryFriday
afternoontheymeetasacommunityforprayer.ThecentralideasoftheMuslimreligionarefoundintheQur'an,whichMuslimsbelievetobethe
willofAllahasrevealedtoMuhammad.TheQur'aniswritteninArabic,andthatlanguagespreadasthefaithoflslamspread.Muslimsarealso
guidedbytheexampleofMuhammad'slife,calledtheSunna,andbyasetoflawsandrulesknownastheSharia.MuslimsbelievethatAllahisthe
sameGodthatJewsandChristiansworship.ToMuslims,theQur'anperfectstheearlierteachingsofGodfoundintheJewishTorahandthe
ChristianBible.BecausetheirholybookswererelatedtotheQur'an;JewsandChristiansenjoyedspecialstatusinMuslimsocieties.
TheSpreadofIslam
KEYIDEADespiteinternalconflicts,theMuslimscreatedanempirespanningthreecontinents.
WhenMuhammaddied,hisfollowerselectedanewleader,Abu-Bakr.HehadbeenloyaltoMuhammad.Hewasgiventhetitlecaliph,which
means"successor"or"deputy."Abu-BakrreactedquicklywhenagroupofArabsabandonedIslam.Hedefeatedtheminbattle.Abu-Bakerdied
soonthereafter.However,hisarmybecameaneffectivefightingforcethatbegantoconquernewlands.
TheArabstookSyriaandEgyptfromtheByzantineEmpire.By750,theMuslimCaliphatestretchedfromtheIndusRiverinIndiawesttoSpain.
TheIslamicfaithhelpedthemachievethisrapidexpansion.TheysaweachvictoryasasignofAllah'ssupportofIslam.Otherfactorswerethe
fightingskillofthearmiesandthestrongleadershipoftheirgenerals.TheByzantineandPersianempirestothenorthwerealsoweakatthistime,
andtheArabstookadvantageofthat.Finally,manypeoplewholivedinthoseempiresdidnotsupporttheofficialreligions.Theyoftensupported
theArabs,whotheythoughtwouldliberatethemfromtheharshruleoftheseempires.
ManyofthesepeopleacceptedIslam.SomefoundtheIslamicmessageofequalitybeforeAllahappealing.Somelikedthefactthatbybecoming
Muslimstheyavoidedpayingataxputonlyonnon-Muslims.TheQur'anpreventedMuslimsfromforcingotherstoacceptthereligion,however.
Muslimrulersallowedpeopletofollowwhateverbeliefstheychose.
Afterthemurderofarulingcaliphin656,differentMuslimgroupsbegantostruggleforcontroloftheempire.Ali,acousinandson-in-lawof
Muhammad,waschosencaliph.Afterafewyears,he,too,waskilled.Thesystemofelectingcaliphsdiedwithhim.
AfamilyknownastheUmayyadstookpoweroverthevastempire.Theydidnotfollowthesimplelifeofearliercaliphsandsurroundedthemselves
withwealth.ThiscreatedadivisionwithintheMuslimcommunity.
MostMuslimsacceptedUmayyadrule;theywereknownastheSunni.AlthoughtheydidnotoutwardlyresistUmayyadrulemanyamongthem
feltthattheUmayyadshadlosttouchwiththeirreligion.However,somedidresist,andadifferentviewoftheofficeofcaliphdeveloped.TheShi'a
group,the“party"ofthedeceasedAli,feltthatcaliphsneededtoberelativesofMuhammad.Anothergroup,theSufi,reactedtotheUmayyads'
lifeofluxury.TheSufisemphasizedamorespiritualwayoflife.TheyhelpedkeepMuslimsfocusedontheQur'anandtradition.
Figure5.2SpreadofIslam
TurkishEmpiresRiseinAnatolia
KEYIDEATurkishpeopleconvertedtoIslamandfoundednewempiresthatwouldrenewMuslimcivilization.
TheTurkswereanomadicpeoplefromthevastgrasslandsofcentralAsia.Theylivedbyherdingsheepandgoatsandengaginginraidsandtrade
withthesettledpeoplesoftheAbbasidEmpire(whohadoverthrowntheUmayyadsandmovedthecapitalofthecaliphatetoBaghdad.)Beginning
inthe900s,theymovedintothelandsofthatempireandbeganconvertingtoIslam.
TheMuslimWorldExpands(A.D.1300–1700)
Inthe1300s,agroupofTurkscalledOttomanssetupanewempireinwhatisnowmodernTurkey.Farthertotheeast,theSafavidEmpirearosein
modernIran,whererulersembracedtheShi’abranchofIslamthatmadethemdifferentfromtheirneighbors.Meanwhile,Indiasawtheriseofyet
anotherempireasMuslimscreatedapowerfulstatethere.
KEYIDEATheOttomansestablishedaMuslimEmpirethatcombinedmanyculturesandlastedformorethan600years.
KEYIDEAManyworldculturesincorporateinfluencesfromvariouspeoplesandtraditions.
In1453,ConstantinoplefinallyfelltoMuslimOttomanTurks.ThecitywasrenamedIstanbul.ThefamousandbeautifulchurchoftheByzantines,
theHagiaSophia,becameamosque.TherebuiltcitybecamehometopeoplefromallovertheOttomanEmpirewhichlasted600yearsandruleda
vastareathatstretchedacrossNorthAfrica,Arabia,SoutheasternEuropeandtheEasternMediterranean.
Throughouthistory,differentpeopleshavelivedtogether,andtheircultureshaveinfluencedoneanother.Oftenthesepeoplehaveblendedone
culturewithanother.Thiscouldbeduetotrade,conquest,movementofpeoplefromoneareatoanother,orconversiontoanewreligion.
ThiskindofblendingtookplaceintheSafavidEmpireofPersia.TheSafavidsbeganasmembersofanIslamicgroupthatclaimedtoberelatedto
theprophetMuhammad.Inthe1400s,theybecamealliedwiththeShi'a,abranchofIslam.ThemajorgroupofMuslims,theSunnis,persecuted
theShi'afortheirviews.TheSafavids,fearingtheirstrongneighbors,theOttomans,whowereSunniMuslims,decidedtobuildastrongarmyto
protectthemselves.TheyattackedBaghdadanddestroyedthecity’sSunnipopulation.OttomanTurkrulers-inturn-killedalltheShi'athatthey
met.TheconflictbetweenthetwogroupsofMuslimscontinuestoday.
KEYIDEATheMughalEmpirebroughtTurks,Persians,andIndianstogetherinavastempire.
Startinginthe600s,Indiawentthroughalongperiodofunsettledlifeandtrouble.AftertheGuptaEmpirefell,nomadsfromcentralAsiainvaded
theareaandcreatedmanysmallkingdoms.Inthe700s,Muslimsarrivedonthescene.Theirarrivallaunchedalonghistoryoffightingbetween
themandtheHinduswhohadlivedinIndiaforcenturies.
TheHinduswereabletopreventtheMuslimsfromtakingtheirlandforabout300years.ThenagroupofMuslimTurksconqueredaregionaround
thecityofDelhiandsetupanewempirethere.TheytreatedtheHindusintheirareaharshly.Theirruleendedin1398;whenTimurtheLame,
anotherMuslimfromCentralAsia,totallydestroyedDelhi.
Alittleoverahundredyearslater,anewpowerarose.BaburhadasmallkingdomnorthofIndia.Heraisedanarmyandbegantowinlargeparts
ofIndia.Baburhadmany
talents.Hewasaloverof
poetryandgardensand
sensitivemanwhousedhis
feelingsforotherstobecomea
superbleader.Hewasalsoan
excellentgeneral.Theempire
hefoundedwascalledthe
MughalEmpirebecauseheand
hisfamilieswererelatedtothe
Mongols.TheMughalsmadea
largeimpactonthecultureand
historyofNorthernIndia
includingthebuildingofthe
TajMahal.However,their
powerandcontrolwasin
declinebythe1700swhen
Britishtradersbeganarrivingin
significantnumbers.
Figure5.3Muslim"Gunpowder"Empires
#6-THEAMERICAS:ASeparateWorld(40,000B.C.–A.D.1500)
KEYIDEAThefirstAmericanswereseparatedfromotherpartsoftheworld.Nevertheless,theydevelopedinsimilarways.
NorthandSouthAmericaformasinglestretchoflandthat
reachesfromthefreezingcoldoftheArcticCircleinthe
northtotheicywatersaroundAntarcticainthesouth.
Twooceansoneithersideoftheselandmassesseparate
themfromAfrica,Asia,andEurope.
Thatwasnotalwaysthecase,though.Fromaround1.6
milliontoabout10,000yearsago,theearthwentthrough
anIceAge.Duringthistimeofseverecold,muchwater
frozeintohugesheetsoficecalledglaciers.Withwater
trappedinice,theleveloftheworld'soceanswentdown.
Theloweroceansexposedlandthatistodayagain
coveredbywater.
Onestripofthisland,calledBeringa,connectedAsiaand
NorthAmerica.Wildanimalscrossedthisrockyland
bridgeandenteredNorthAmericaforthefirsttime.Some
oftheAsianswhohuntedtheseanimalsfollowedthem.
Withoutknowingit,theybecamethefirstAmericans.
Nooneknowsforsurewhenthesefirstpeoplereached
theAmericas.Somehistorianssayittookplaceaslong
agoas40,000B.C.Otherssayithappenedaslateas
12,000B.C.ArecentdiscoveryinChilesuggeststhat
peoplewerewellsettledinthatpartoftheAmericasby
10,500B.C.SinceChileliesfarsouthofthelandbridge,
someexpertssaythatpeopleneededmanythousandsof
yearstotravelthatfar.Forthisreason,theythinkthatthe
firstpeopletocrossthelandbridgemusthavearrived
about20,000B.C.
Wheneveritwasthattheyarrived,thesefirstAmericans
clearlylivedashunter-gatherersandnotassettled
Figure6.1MigrationroutesintotheAmericasvialandbridgetoAsia
farmers.Oneoftheirfavoritetargetsforthehuntwasthe
hugemastodon.Thiscreaturewaslikeanelephantcoveredwiththick,longhairtoprotectitfromthebittercoldoftheIceAge.Itwassolargethat
oneanimalalonegaveenoughmeat,hide,andbonestofeed,clothe,andhousemanypeople.
Overtime,allthemastodonsdied,andthepeoplewereforcedtolookforotherfood.Theybegantohuntsmalleranimalssuchasrabbitsanddeer
andtofish.Theyalsobegantogatherplantsandfruitstoeat.Becausetheynolongerhadtoroamoverlargeareastosearchforthemastodon,
theysettledforpartoftheyearinonespot.
About7000B.C.,thepeoplelivingincentralMexicostartedaquietrevolution-farming.Itwasthesamekindofradicalchangethathadhappened
inseveralspotsinAsiaandAfrica.By3400B.C.,theyhadseveralfoodsthattheygrew,includingsquashes,beans,chilies,andthemostimportant
one-corn.Corngrewsowellthatafamilyofthreecould,infourmonths,growenoughcorntofeeditfortwoyears. Overmanycenturies,thepracticeoffarmingspreadthroughouttheAmericas.InwhatisnowtheeasternUnitedStatesandintheregionofthe
AndesMountains,earlyAmericansmayhavediscoveredtheideaoffarmingontheirown.IncentralMexico,farmersbecamesoskilledatgrowing
cornthattheycouldenjoythreeharvestseachyear.
FarminghadthesameresultsintheAmericasthatitdidinAsiaandAfrica.Growingfoodgavepeopleamorereliablefoodsupply-andmorefood,
too.Asaresult,morepeoplecouldbefed,theywerehealthier,andtheylivedlonger.Thepopulationgrew.Becausefarmersproducedasurplus,
somepeoplecouldconcentrateonotherwaysofmakingaliving.Theybegantoworkindifferentartsandcraftsortolearnhowtobuildbuildings.
Somepeoplegrewtoberich-toownmorethanothersandtoenjoyahigherpositioninsociety.Somepeoplebecamerulers,andothersbecame
theirsubjects.
PeopleandEmpiresintheAmericas,9001500
ThecivilizationsintheAmericasfollowed
severalwaysoflife.Yet,theysharedtrade
linksandreligiousandsocialpractices.The
MayaofCentralAmericadevelopeda
complexcivilizationofindependentcitystatescontrolledbydynastiesofkings.
Throughalliancesandconquest,theAztecof
Mexicobuiltahugeempire,buttheirharsh
ruleoverconqueredpeoplecaused
bitterness.TheIncaofSouthAmericabuilta
vastempiresupportedbytaxes,governedby
abureaucracy,andlinkedbyextensiveroad
systemsintheAndesMountains.
Figure6.2.Tenochtitlan,capitalcityoftheAztecatthearrivaloftheEuropeans
#7-THEPROTESTANTREFORMATION
EuropeanRenaissanceandReformation,1300-1600
Inthe1300s,arenewedinterestinclassicallearningandtheartsaroseinItaly.ThinkersinnorthernEuropeadoptedtheseideasaswellbutwitha
spiritualfocus.ThedesireforamoresatisfyingspirituallifeledsometorevoltagainsttheCatholicChurch,asnewchurcheswerefounded.In
response,theCatholicChurchundertooksomereformsofitsown,strengtheningthefaith.
KEYIDEATheEuropeanRenaissance,arebirthoflearningandthearts,beganinItalyinthe1300s.Bythe1400s,northernEuropeansbeganto
adapttheideasof"theRenaissance.”
Followingthelong,slowchangesoftheMiddleAges,theRenaissancebroughtaburstofnewideas–someworldly,somereligious,andsome
concernedwithscienceandthenaturalworld.TheyearsbetweenA.D.1300andA.D.1600wereagoldenageofEuropeancivilization.Theterm
Renaissancemeans“rebirth.”ItwasatimewhenEuropeanssoughttorestoretheclassicalculturesofGreeceandRome.Inrevivingoldcultures,
however,theycreatedanewone.Creativeindividualstransformedliteratureandthearts,explorerssoughtnewknowledgeandexpandedthe
Europeanworld.Renaissancethinkersstudiedancienttexts,andinsistedthatpeoplemighthaveinterestandenjoymentinlifeonearthwithout
offendingGod.Artistscouldbecelebratedfortheirachievementsandothermoreseculartopicscouldbestudiedandpursued.Writersbegan
usingthevernacularlanguagesothatliteratureandknowledgecouldbemoreaccessibletothecommonman.Alloftheseideastogetherformthe
basisofanewwayofthinkingcalledHumanism.
KEYIDEAMartinLuther'sprotestoverabusesintheCatholicChurchledtothefoundingofProtestantchurches.
By1500,Renaissancevaluesemphasizingtheindividual
andworldlylifeweakenedtheinfluenceoftheChurch.
Atthesametime,manypeoplesharplycriticizedthe
Churchforsomeofitspractices.Popesseemedmore
concernedwithart,wealthandpoliticalpowerthan
withspiritualmatters.Inthepast,reformershadurged
thattheChurchchangeitswaystobecomemore
spiritualandhumble.Christianhumanistssuchas
ErasmusandMoreaddedtheirvoicestocallsfor
change.Intheearly1500s,thecallsgrewlouder.
In1517,aGermanmonkandprofessornamedMartin
Lutherprotestedagainstchurchpractices.Hiswords
werequicklyprintedandbegantospreadthroughout
Germany.SoonLutherpushedforbroaderchanges.He
saidthatpeoplecouldwinsalvationonlythroughfaith,
notgoodworks.Hesaidthatreligiousbeliefsshouldbe
basedontheBiblealoneandthatthepopehadnoreal
authority.Hesaidthateachpersonwasequalbefore
God.HeorshedidnotneedapriesttoexplaintheBible
tothem.
ThusbegantheReformation,themovementforreform
thatledtothefoundingofnewChristianchurches.
OtherReformationmovementsfollowed.KingHenry
VIIIsplitfromRomeovertheissueofdivorcinghiswife
andformedtheAnglicanChurchinEngland.JohnCalvin
createdatheocracyinGeneva,Switzerlandand
institutedstrictrulesofbehaviorthaturgedpeopleto
livedeeplyreligiouslives.ApreachernamedJohnKnox
puttheseideasintopracticeinScotlandandfounded
thePresbyterianChurch.Todaythosechurchesand
othersthatgrewoutoftheReformationareconsideredtobepartoftheProtestantbranchofChristianity.
Protestantchurchesgrew,butmillionsremainedtruetotheCatholicfaith.Still,theCatholicChurchtookstepstoreformitself.ASpanishnoble
namedIgnatiusfoundedanewgroupintheChurchbasedondeepdevotiontoJesus.MembersstartedschoolsacrossEurope.Theysent
missionariesacrosstheglobetotrytoconvertpeopletoCatholicismwhowerenotChristians.Inaddition,theytriedtostopthespreadof
ProtestantfaithsinEuropeoftenviolentlywiththeInquisition.
#8–ANAGEOFEXPLORATIONANDISOLATION(1400-1800)
"God,gloryandgold"drovetheearlyEuropeanexplorationofAsia.PortugalledthewayinestablishingtradingrelationswithAsiancivilizations.
Soon,though,nationsofnorthernEuropetookovertheIndianOceantrade.Two
dynastiesinChinaresistedthegrowingpowerofEuropeansinAsia,limitingChinese
contactwithforeigners.InJapan,anewsystemofgovernmentbroughtpeaceand
thenisolation.
KEYIDEADrivenbythedesireforwealthandChristianconverts,Europeansbegan
anageofexploration.
Formanycenturies,Europeanshadbeenlargely,thoughnotcompletely,isolated
fromcontactwithpeoplefromotherlands.Thatchangedinthe1400s.Onereason
forthischangewasthatEuropeanshopedtogainnewsourcesofwealth.By
exploringtheseasfarfromEurope,tradershopedtofindnew,fasterroutestoAsiathesourceofspicesandluxurygoods.Theirgoalwastowinaccesstotheselandsand
bypasstheMuslimsandItalianswhocurrentlycontrolledthistrade.Anotherreason
wasthedesiretospreadChristianitytonewlands.TheCrusadeshadended,butbad
feelingsbetweenChristiansandMuslimsremained.TheChristiansofEuropewanted
toconvertthepeopleofAsia.
Advancesinocean-faringtechnologymadethesevoyagespossible.Thefirstnationto
developandusethesenewtechnologieswasPortugal.Inthe1400s,Portuguese
captainssailedfartherandfartherdownthewestcoastofAfrica.In1488,
BartolomeuDiasledthefirstvoyagetoreachthesoutherntipofAfrica.Tenyears
later,VascodaGamaledaship27,000milesaroundAfrica,toIndia,andback.The
PortuguesehadfoundasearoutetoAsia.
InSpain,theItaliansailorChristopherColumbusconvincedthekingandqueenthathecouldreachAsiabysailingwest.In1492,insteadoflanding
inAsia,ColumbustouchedlandintheislandsoftheAmericas,landunknowntoEuropeans.Atfirst,though,peoplestillthoughtthathehadlanded
inAsia.SpainandPortugalarguedoverwhichnationhadtherightstothelandthatColumbushadclaimed.In1494,theysignedtheTreatyof
Tordesillas.Itdividedtheworldintotwoareas.PortugalwontherighttocontroltheeasternpartsandSpainthewesternparts-includingmostof
theAmericas.
PortugalmovedquicklytomakethenewIndian
Oceanroutepayoff.In1509,itdefeateda
MuslimfleetoffthecoastofIndiaandthus
becamethemasterofIndiantrade.Soon,it
capturedcitiesinIndiaandtheMalaypeninsula.
Portugalnowhadpoweroverislandsthatwere
sorichindesirablespicesthattheywerecalled
theSpiceIslands(today’sIndonesia).
SpicesnowcostEuropeansone-fifthofwhat
theyhadcostbefore,whilestillmakingPortugal
verywealthy.OtherEuropeannationsjoinedin
thistrade.Inthe1600s,theEnglishandDutch
enteredtheEastIndiestochallengePortugal.
TheDutchfleet-about20,000ships-wasthe
largestintheworld.Thesetwonationsquickly
brokePortuguesepowerinthearea.Thenboth
Figure8.2TreatyofTordesillasMap
nationssetupanEastIndiaCompanytocontrolAsian
trade.Thesecompaniesweremorethanbusinesses.Theyactedlikegovernments,withthepowertomakemoney,signtreaties,andraisetheir
ownarmies.
TheDutchmadetheirtradingheadquartersontheislandofJavaintheEastIndies.By1700,theDutchruledmuchofIndonesia.Theyhadtrading
postsinmanyotherAsiancountriesandcommandedthesoutherntipofAfrica.Atthesametime,bothEnglandandFrancefinallygainedfootholds
inIndia.
WhiletheEuropeanscontrolledthetradebetweenAsiaandEurope,theyhadlittleimpactonmostpeoplelivingintheseareas.From1500to1800,
thepeopleofAsiawerelargelyuntouchedbytheEuropeantraders.
KEYIDEAAdvancesundertheMingandDingdynastiesleftChinaself-containedanduninterestedinEuropeancontact.
ChinaallowedEuropeanstotradeofficiallyatonlythreeports.Chinabecameisolated.However,illegaltradetookplaceallalongthecoast.
BecauseEuropeanswantedChinesesilkandceramics,thepeoplebeganmakinglargeamountsofthesegoods.Europeanspaidsilverforthem.
ManufacturingnevergrewverylargeinChina,however.TheConfucianideasthatshapedChinesethinkingsaidthatfarmingwasabetterwayof
life,somanufacturingwasheavilytaxed.MissionariesenteredChinaatthistime,bringingbothChristianityandtechnology,suchastheclock.
TheChineseinsistedthatEuropeanshadtofollowcertainrulesinordertocontinuetradingwiththem.TheDutchwerewillingtodoso,andthey
carriedonthelargestshareoftradewithChina.TheBritish,though,didnotagreetofollowtheserules.Thisdisagreementlaterledtoconflictthat
brokeuptheChineseEmpire.
KEYIDEATheTokugawaregimeunifiedJapanandbegana200-yearperiodofisolation,autocracy,andeconomicgrowth.
Intheearly1600s,anewgovernmentinJapanbroughtaboutalongperiodofpeaceand
prosperitymostly.TheJapanesesocietywasstructuredalongsimilarlinesasEuropean
feudalism.Atthetopwastheshogun(theemperorwasafigureheadduringthisperiod),
followedbylargelandholdingnoblesknownasdaimyo,awarriorclasssimilartoknights,called
thesamurai,andfinallythepeasants.Peasantfarmerssufferedgreatlyduringthistime.They
workedlongandhardonthefarmsandpaidheavytaxes.Manyleftthecountrysidetomoveto
thecities.Bythemid-l700s,Edohadmorethanamillionpeopleandwasperhapsthelargestcity
intheworld.
EuropeansbegantoarriveinJapan.In1543,thePortuguesewerefirst.Theybroughtsuch
goodsasclocks,eyeglasses,andguns.Japanesemerchantsandthedaimyowelcomedthemat
first.TheyevenwelcomedtheChristianmissionarieswhocameafter1549,hopingtoconvert
theJapanesetoChristianity.
SomemissionariesscornedtraditionalJapanesebeliefs,though.Tokugawabecameworried.In
1612,hebannedChristianityfromthecountry.Overthenext20yearsorso,Japanmanagedto
ridthecountryofallChristians.Thiseffortbecamepartofalargerplantoprotectthecountry
fromEuropeaninfluence.In1639,leaderssealedJapan'sbordersexceptforoneportcity.ItwasopentoonlytheChineseandtheDutch.The
Tokugawashogunscontrolledthatportcity,sotheyhadtightcontroloverallforeigncontact.Forthenext200years,Japanremainedclosedto
virtuallyallEuropeancontact.
Figure8.3Japanesefeudalism
TheAtlanticWorld(1492-1800)
Startingin1492,theSpanishbuiltalargeempireintheAmericas,butthenativepeoplessuffered.InNorthAmerica,theDutch,French,andEnglish
foughtforcontrol.Englandfinallywon.ThelaborofenslavedpersonsbroughtfromAfricasupportedNewWorldcolonies.Thecontactbetween
theOldWorldandtheNewproducedanexchangeofnewideas.
KEYIDEAThevoyagesofColumbuspromptedtheSpanishtocarveoutthefirstEuropeancoloniesintheAmericas.
In1492,ChristopherColumbussailedwestfromEuropeintendingtoreachAsiabutinsteadlandedintheAmericas.ThiswaslandthatEuropeans
hadnotknownexistedbefore.ColumbusthoughtatfirstthathehadreachedAsia,ortheIndies.HemisnamedthenativeshemetIndiansand
claimedthelandforSpain.Thekingandqueenagreedtolethimleadanothervoyage.ThisonewasanexpeditiontoestablishcoloniesthatSpain
wouldrule.
In1500,aPortugueseexplorerlandedinBrazilandclaimedthatlandforhiscountry.In1501,anotherItaliansailoronbehalfofSpain,Amerigo
Vespucci,exploredtheeasterncoastofSouthAmerica.HesaidthattheselandswerenotAsiabutanewworld.Soonafter,amapmakershowed
thelandsasaseparatecontinent.HenamedthemAmericaafterVespucci.
OthervoyagesgaveEuropeansmoreknowledgeabouttheworld.OneexplorerreachedthewestcoastofCentralAmericaandfirstsawthePacific
Ocean.Another,FerdinandMagellan,ledaboldexpeditionfromSpainthatsailedcompletelyaroundtheworld.Magellanhimselfdiedabout
halfwayaround.However,afewmembersofhiscrewsurvived.TheyreturnedtoSpainaftersailingforalmostthreeyears.
Spanishconquistadors,orconquerors,alsobegantoexplorethelandsoftheAmericas.Theretheyfoundgreatriches.In1519,HernandoCortes
cametoMexicoanddefeatedthepowerfulAztecEmpire.TheSpanishhadtheadvantageofriflesandcannons.Theyalsohadtheaidofseveral
nativegroupswhowereangryoverharshAztecrule.Inaddition,theAztecwereseriouslyweakenedbynewdiseasesbroughttotheAmericaswith
theSpanish.Nativepeopleshadnoresistancetomeasles,mumps,andsmallpox,whichkilledthembythehundredsofthousands.
About15yearslater,anotherSpanishforce,ledbyFranciscoPizarro,conqueredthemightyIncaEmpireofSouthAmerica.Onceagain,theSpanish
gainedaccesstohugeamountsofgoldandsilver.Bythemid-1500s,SpainhadformedanAmericanempirethatstretchedfrommodern-day
MexicotoPeru.However,onelargeareaofLatinAmerica,Brazil,remainedoutsidethecontrolofSpain.BrazilwasthepossessionofPortugal.
Coloniststherebuilthugefarmscalledplantationstogrowsugar,whichwasindemandinEurope.
TheSpanishhadapatternoflivingamongthepeopletheyconquered.BecausefewSpanishsettlersintheAmericaswerewomen,Spanishmen
marriednativewomen.Theirchildrenanddescendantformedalargemestizopopulation,peoplewithmixedSpanishandNativeAmericanblood.
TheSpanishalsoformedlargefarmsandminesthatusednativesasslavelabor.Manylandownerstreatedthenativeworkersharshly.Some
Spanishpriestscriticizedthistreatment.In1542,theSpanishstoppedmakingslavesofnativepeoples.Theysoon,however,wouldbringenslaved
AfricanstotheAmericastomeetlabordemands.
KEYIDEASeveralEuropeannationsfoughtforcontrolofNorthAmerica,andEnglandeventuallyemergedvictorious.
Intheearly1500s,theFrenchbegantoexploreNorthAmerica.JacquesCartiercameacrossandnamedtheSt.LawrenceRiver.Hethenfollowed
itinlandtoreachthesiteofmodernMontreal.In1608,SamueldeChamplainsailedfarasmodernQuebec.Inthenext100years,theFrench
exploredandclaimedtheareaaroundtheGreatLakesandtheMississippiRiverallthewaytoitsmouthattheGulfofMexico.Theareabecame
knownasNewFrance.Themainactivityinthiscolonywastradeinbeaverfur,desiredinEurope,tomakehats.
TheEnglishalsobegantocolonizeNorthAmerica.ThefirstpermanentsettlementcameatJamestown,inmodemVirginia,in1607.Thecolony
struggledatfirst.Manysettlersdiedfromdisease,hunger,orwarwiththenativepeoples.Soonfarmersbegantogrowtobaccotomeetthehigh
demandforitinEurope.
Inthe1620sand1630s,othergroupsfromEnglandbegantosettleinmodemMassachusetts.Thesesettlersweredeeplyreligiouspeoplewhodid
notagreewiththepracticesoftheChurchofEngland.Theywantedtopurifythechurch(largelyof“Latin”orCatholicinfluence)andwerecalled
Puritans.TheyhopedtobuildamodelcommunitydedicatedtoGod.Theysucceededovertimeinpartbecausemanyfamiliessettledthere.
Meanwhile,theDutchalsostartedanewcolony.TheysettledinthelocationofmodernNewYorkCity.LiketheFrench,theyengagedinthefur
tradeandsetuptradingpostsalongtheHudsonRiver.Thecolonydidnotgrowverylarge,butitdidattractpeoplefromotherEuropeancountries.
Itbecameknownasahometopeopleofmanydifferentreligionsandcultures.EuropeansalsotookpossessionofmanyislandsoftheCaribbean.
TheretheybuilttobaccoandsugarplantationsthatusedenslavedAfricansasworkers.
TheEuropeanpowersbegantofightforcontrolofNorthAmerica.First,theEnglishforcedtheDutchtogiveuptheircolony.NewAmsterdamwas
renamedNewYork.TheEnglishalsoplantedothercoloniesalongtheAtlanticcoast,fromNewHampshiretoGeorgia.Thesecolonistscamein
conflictwiththeFrenchsettlersinCanadaonmanyoccasions.Thefinalfightstartedin1754andwascalledtheFrenchandIndianWar.Whenit
endedin1763,FrancewasforcedtogiveupitslandinNorthAmericatoBritain.
Thenativepeoplesrespondedtotheseeventsinmanydifferentways.ManyworkedcloselywiththeFrenchandDutch,joininginthefurtradeand
benefitingfromit.ThosewholivedneartheEnglish,though,hadstormierrelationswithcolonists.Morethanjusttrade,theEnglishwere
interestedinacquiringlandforsettlers'livingandfarming.ThiswaslandthatNativeAmericanswouldnotbeabletouseforhuntingorgrowing
theirownfood.Thisconflicteruptedintowarseveraltimes.Natives,though,couldnotovercomethesettlers'gunsandcannons.AsinSpanish
lands,thenativepeoplessufferedevenmorefromdisease.ThousandsuponthousandsofnativesdiedfromEuropeanillnesses,makingit
impossibleforthemtoresistthegrowthofthecolonies.
KEYIDEATomeettheirgrowinglaborneeds,EuropeansenslavedmillionsofAfricansinforcedlaborintheAmericas.
SlaveryhasalonghistoryinAfrica
andintheworld.Formostofthat
historyinAfrica,though,nolarge
numbersofpeoplewereenslaved.
Thatchangedinthe600s,when
Muslimtradersstartedtotakelarge
numbersofslaves.Between650
and1600,Muslimstookabout4.8
millionAfricanstoSouthwestAsia.
Mostworkedasservantsandhad
certainrights.Also,thesonsand
daughtersofslaveswereconsidered
tobefree.TheEuropeanslavetrade
thatbeganinthe1500swaslarger
andtheenslavedAfricanswere
treatedfarmoreharshly.
IntheAmericas,Europeansfirst
usedNativeAmericanstowork
farmsandmines.Whenthenatives
begandyingfromdisease,the
EuropeansbroughtinAfricans,for
threereasons.Africanshad
resistancetoEuropeandiseases,so
theywouldnotgetsickanddie.
Also,manyAfricansknewaboutlarge-scalefarmingsotheywouldbeaccustomedtotheworkinvolved.Third,Africanswerestrangerstothe
Americasandwouldnotknowplacestohidefromslavery.From1500to1870,whentheslavetradetotheAmericasfinallyended,over10million
Africanshadbeenimportedasslaves.
TheSpanishfirstbeganthepracticeofbringingAfricanstotheAmericas.However,thePortuguese,lookingforworkersforsugarplantationsin
Brazil,increasedthedemandforslaves.Duringthe1600s,Brazilreceivedmorethan40percentofalltheAfricanssenttotheAmericas.Other
Europeancoloniesalsobroughtslavestoworkontobacco,sugar,andcoffeeplantations.Onlyabout½millionslaveswerebroughttotheEnglish
coloniesinNorthAmerica.Theirpopulationincreasedovertime,though,tonumberabout2millionin1830.
ManyAfricanrulersjoinedintheslavetrade.TheymovedinlandtocapturepeopleandbroughtthemtothecoasttoselltoEuropeantraders.This
tradewaspartofatriangulartradepatternthatlinkedEurope,Africa,andtheAmericas.EuropeanshipsbroughtmanufacturedgoodstoAfrica,
tradingthemforpeople.TheycarriedAfricansacrosstheAtlantictotheAmericaswheretheyweresoldintoslavery.Thetradersthenbought
sugar,coffee,andtobacco,whichtheycarriedbacktoEurope.
ThepartofthevoyagethatbroughtpeopletotheAmericaswascalledthemiddlepassage.Itwasharshandcruel.Peoplewerecrammedinto
ships,beaten,andgivenlittlefood.Manydied,andmanyotherssimplyjumpedoverboardtryingtoescape.About20percentofthepeopleon
theseshipsdied.
Lifeontheplantationswasharshaswell.Peopleweresoldtothehighestbidderandthenworkedfromdawntoduskinthefieldsofthe
plantations.Theyweregivenlittlefoodandclothingandlivedinsmallhuts.Africanskeptalivetheirtraditionalmusicandbeliefstotrytomaintain
theirspirits.Sometimestheyaroseinrebellion.FromNorthAmericatoBrazil,from1522tothe1800s,thereweresmall-scaleslaverevolts.
KEYIDEAThecolonizationoftheAmericasintroducednewanddifferentitemsintotheEasternandWesternhemispheres.Thisisknownasthe
ColumbianExchange.
TherewasconstantmovementofpeoplefromEuropeandAfricatotheAmericas.Thislarge-scalemixingofpeopleandculturewascalledthe
ColumbianExchange.ImportantfoodssuchascornandpotatoesweretakenfromtheAmericas,wheretheyoriginated,toEurope,Africa,and
Asia.
SomefoodsmovedfromtheOldWorldtotheNew.Bananas,black-eyedpeas,andyamsweretakenfromAfricatotheAmericas.Cattle,pigs,and
horseshadneverbeenseenintheAmericasuntiltheEuropeansbroughtthem.Ofcourse,deadlydiseasesalsomovedtotheAmericas.Theykilled
alargeportionoftheNativeAmericanpopulation.
ThesettlingoftheAmericasandthegrowthoftradeledtoanewsetofbusinesspracticesstillfollowedtoday.Onewastheriseofaneconomic
systemcalledcapitalism.Itisbasedonprivateownershipofpropertyandtherightofabusinesstoearnaprofit.Anothernewbusinessideawas
thejoint-stockcompany.Withthis,manyinvestorspooledtheirmoneytostartabusinessandshareintheprofits.Europeangovernmentsbegan
tofollowanideacalledmercantilism.Inthistheory,acountry'spowerdependedonitswealth.Gettingmoregoldandsilverincreaseditswealth,
aswouldsellingmoregoodsthanitbought.Coloniesplayedanimportantrolebecausetheyprovidedgoodsthatcouldbesoldintrade.
WiththeestablishmentofcoloniesintheAmericas,Europeansocietysawchanges.Merchantsgrewwealthyandpowerful,thepopulationgrew
withtheintroductionofheartyNewWorldcropsandtownsandcitiesgrewlarger.Still,mostpeoplelivedinthecountryside,farmedforaliving,
andwerepoor.
#9-SCIENTIFICREVOLUTIONANDTHEENLIGHTENMENT
AbsoluteMonarchsinEurope(1500-1800)
LouisXIVascendedtothethroneofFrancein1661.HisreignmarkedthestartofacenturydominatedbypowerfulrulersinmuchofEurope
includingRussia,Austria,PrussiaandFrance.InEnglandthepowerofthemonarchyhadbeenrestricted,butintheseotherkingdoms,the
monarchswieldedabsolutepower.Withtheirpower,thesemonarchsbuiltmagnificentpalacesandsupportedgreatartists,writersand
composers.However,theyalsowagedalongseriesofdestructivewars.Markedbyshiftingalliancesandbitterconflict,thesewarsillustratethe
roleofcooperationandconflictininternationalaffairs.
KEYIDEASpain’scoloniesactuallyledtoaperiodofeconomicinstability.
Manykingdomsduringtheeraofabsolutemonarchsfollowedtheeconomicpolicyofmercantilism.Thatpolicysoughttogainwealthforthe
nationbyacquiringgoldandexpandingtrade.Byexportingmorethanitimported,kingdomshopedtobuildafavorablebalanceoftrade.
SpainseemedstrongbecauseofthewealththatflowedinfromitscoloniesintheAmericas.However,ithadimportedsomuchgoldandsilver
fromtheAmericasthatthemetalsdeclinedinvalue.Middle-classmerchantsandefficientmanufacturinghelpedtheeconomiesofothernations
adjust.Spain,however,hadnomiddle-class.Manyofitseducatedmiddle-classhadbeenJewsandMoors.TheyweredrivenfromSpainduring
theInquisition.ThusSpaniardscouldnotproduceenoughforSpain’sneedsandthecountrysanksteadilyintopoverty.
Inthemiddleofthesetroubles,Spainlostland.SevenprovincesoftheSpanishNetherlands(anareaSpaincontrolledinnorthwesternEurope)rose
inprotestagainsthightaxes.Also,theDutchwereProtestantandSpainwasstronglyCatholic.In1579,thesesevenprovincesdeclaredtheir
independencefromSpain.
InthenewDutchRepublic,eachprovincehadaleaderelectedbythepeople.TheDutchalsopracticedreligioustolerance.Dutchmerchants
establishedatradingempire.TheyhadthelargestfleetofmerchantshipsintheworldandwerethemostimportantbankersinEurope.
KEYIDEATheTreatyofWestphalialeadstothegrowthofnation-states.
GermanyhadsufferedfromreligiouswarslinkedtotheProtestantReformationthatendedin1555.Rulersofeachstateagreedthattheywould
decidewhethertheirlandswouldbeCatholicorProtestant.Overthenextdecades,however,thetwosideshadtenserelations.In1618,theThirty
Years’Warbrokeout.ThewarwasadisasterforGermany.About4millionpeopledied,anditseconomywasinruins.IttookGermanytwo
centuriestorecover.ThewarweakenedthepowerofAustriaandSpainandmadeFrancestronger.TheThirtyYears'Warendedin1648withthe
PeaceofWestphalia.Becauseofthisagreement,eachnationofEuropewasseenashavinganequalrighttonegotiatewithalltheothers.It
establishedthatstateshavearighttosovereigntyandterritorialintegrity,andhavenationalintereststhatoutweighthoseofanyindividual
monarchorruler.Manypoliticalscientistsconsiderthistobethebeginningoftheconceptofanation-state.
WhilestrongstatesaroseinWesternEurope,noneemergedinEasternEurope.Theeconomiestherewerelessdevelopedthaninthewest.Most
peoplewerestillpeasants.Thisregionhadnotbuiltaneconomybasedontowns.
KEYIDEAPetertheGreatmademanychangesinRussiatotrytomakeitmorelikeWesternEurope.
PetertheGreatwasdeterminedtoendRussia’sisolation.IntheMiddleAges,RussianslookedtoConstantinopleforreligiousandcultural
leadership.Later,thelongyearsofMongolrulefurtherreducedcontactswithWesternEurope.ThusmostRussianswereunawareofthenew
ideasthataroseduringtheRenaissance,theAgeofExplorationandtheScientificRevolution.Hemodernizedhiscountrybyimportingthelatest
learningfromtheWestandinstitutingreforms.HemovedhiscapitaltoanewcityhebuiltontheBalticSea,St.Petersburg,muchclosertothe
westernworldofwhichhehopedtobecomepart.
ScientificRevolution,theEnlightenmentandRevolution(1550-1789)
KEYIDEATheScientificRevolutionandtheEnlightenmentchangethewaythatpeopleviewtheworld.Thisledtogreatadvancesandalsosocial
andpoliticalrevolutions.
Inthemid-1500s,scientistsbegantoquestion
acceptedbeliefsandmakenewtheoriesbasedon
experimentation.Theynolongerdependedsolelyon
whattheyweretaughtintheBible.Thisisknownas
theScientificRevolutionandwouldeventuallyleadto
theconclusionthattheearthwasnotthecenterofthe
universeandthatphysicalforcessuchasgravity
controlledthemovementofplanetsandthingson
earth.Itledtoinnovationsinagriculture,better
medicaltechniquesandeventuallyaradicalchangein
howgoodsweremade.
Arelatedrevolutioninintellectualactivity,calledthe
Enlightenment,changedEuropeans'viewof
governmentandsociety.Thinkersofthe
Enlightenmenthopedtoapplyreasonandthe
scientificmethodtolawsthatshapedhumanactions.
Theyhelpedspreadtheideaofprogress.They
concludedthattheycouldcreateabettersocietyin
whichpeoplewerefreeandthattheindividualperson
wasimportant.TheseideasalsocreatedaWesternsocietythatwasmoresecular.EnlightenmentideasspreadthroughoutEurope.Theyhada
profoundeffectinNorthAmerica,formingthebasisofthenewgovernmentoftheUnitedStates.
KEYIDEAEnlightenmentideasspreadthroughtheWesternworld,andinfluencedtheartsandgovernment.Enlightenmentideashelpspurthe
Americancoloniestocreateanewnation.
TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesdrewonmanyEnlightenment
ideas.ItincorporatedEnlightenmentideassuchastheseparationof
powersandcreatedagovernmentwiththreebranches.Itrespected
therightsofthepeoplebyprotectingtherightsofpeopletofree
speechandfreedomofreligion.Itsetupafairsystemofjustice.Many
oftheserightswereensuredinasetofadditionstotheConstitution
calledtheBillofRights.
TheFrenchRevolutionandNapoleon,1789-1815
KEYIDEAEnlightenmentideasledtheFrenchpeopletorevoltagainst
absolutismandtrytocreateamoreequalsociety.
InequalitiesintheFrenchsocietyandeconomyhelpedcausethe
FrenchRevolution.InspiredbyEnlightenmentideals,France'slower
classesrevoltedagainstthekingandeventuallyestablishingaradical
republicthatusedterrorandviolencetoretainpower.Thousandsdied.Fromthechaos,NapoleontookcontrolofFranceandcreatedanempire.A
militarygenius,NapoleonBonaparte,ledFrencharmiesinvictoryacrossEuropeandarousednationalisticfeelingsthatcontributedtohisdownfall.
Afterhisdefeat,Europeanleaderswaryofagenerationofrevolutionandwarrestoredtheruleofmonarchsandaconservativesocialordertothe
continent.
AcrossEurope,kingsandprincesreclaimedtheirthrones.Mostofthemwereconservativesanddidnotencourageindividualliberties.Theydidnot
wantanycallsforequalrights.However,manypeoplestillbelievedintheidealsofthe
FrenchRevolution.Theythoughtthatallpeopleshouldbeequalandshareinpower.Later
theywouldfightfortheserightsagain.
Figure9.4Napoleon
Figure9.5Napoleon'sEuropeanEmpireatitsheight
NationalistRevolutionsSweeptheWest(1789–1900)
KEYIDEASpurredbydiscontentandEnlightenmentideas,peoplesinLatinAmerica
foughtcolonialrule.
InspiredbytheFrenchandAmericanRevolutions,peopleinLatinAmericaalsofeltthe
desireforfreedom.Spanishcoloniesrevoltedandwonindependence.Theideasofthe
FrenchRevolutionandtheturmoilitcausedchangedthepoliticsofEuropeandbeyond.
KEYIDEALiberalandnationalistuprisingschallengedtheoldconservativeorderof
Europe.
Inthefirsthalfofthe1800s,threeforcesstruggledforpowerwithinthecountriesof
Europe.Conservativessupportedthekingswhohadruledtheselandsformanycenturies.
Thesewerenoblesandotherpeoplewhoownedlargeamountsofproperty.Liberals
wantedtogivemorepowertoelectedlegislatures.Theyweretypicallymiddle-class
merchantsandbusinesspeople.Theywantedtolimitvotingrightstopeoplewhowere
educatedandownedproperty.Radicalswantedtheendofrulebykingsandfullvoting
rightsforallpeople,eventhepoor.
Atthesametime,anothermovementaroseinEurope-nationalism.Thiswasthebelief
thataperson'sloyaltyshouldgonottothecountry'srulerbuttothenationitself.
Nationaliststhoughtthatpeoplewithacommonlanguageandculturewereanationandhadtherighttotheirowngovernment.Thisideagrew
outoftheFrenchRevolution.
KEYIDEATheforceofnationalismcontributedtotheformationoftwonewnationsandanewpoliticalorderinEurope.
Nationaliststhoughtthatmanyfactorslinkedpeopletooneanother.Firstwasnationality,oracommonethnicancestry.Sharedlanguage,culture,
history,andreligionwerealsoseenastiesthatconnectedpeople.Peoplesharingthesetraitswerethoughttohavetherighttoalandtheycould
calltheirown.Groupswiththeirowngovernmentwerecallednation-states.Leadersbegantoseethatthisfeelingcouldbeapowerfulforcefor
unitingapeople.TheFrenchRevolutionwasaprimeexampleofusingnationalismtouniteapeople.Andinthelate-1800s,ItaliansandGermans
usednationalfeelingtobuildthenewnationsofGermanyandItalyfromwhathadbeencollectionsofsmallerstates.
Figure9.7Characteristicsofanation-state
Somerulerssawitdifferently.Feelingsofnationalismthreatenedtobreakapartthreeagingempires.TheAustrianEmpirewasforcedtosplitin
twoparts,AustriaandHungary.However,nationalistfeelingcontinuedtoplaguetheserulersfor40yearsandthekingdomslaterbrokeupinto
severalsmallerstates.InRussia,harshruleandapolicyofforcingotherpeoplestoadoptRussianwayshelpedproducearevolutionin1917that
overthrewtheczar.TheOttomanEmpire,liketheothertwo,brokeapartaroundthetimeofWorldWarI.Asaresultoftheseevents,thebalance
ofpowerinEuropehadchanged.GermanyandBritainwerenowthestrongestpowers,followedbyFrance.Austria,Russia,andItalywerealleven
weaker.
#10-THEINDUSTRIALREVOLUTION(1700–1900)
BritainfueledanIndustrialRevolution,whichchangedsociety.Workersbenefitedeventually,butatfirstsufferedbadworkingandliving
conditions.OthernationsfollowedBritain’sexampleandindustrialized.Thinkersreactedtothesechangesbydevelopingnewviewsofsociety.
Reformerspushedforchangestomakesocietybetter.
KEYIDEATheIndustrialRevolutionstartedinGreatBritainandsoonspreadelsewhere.
Intheearly1700s,largelandownersinBritainpurchasedmuchofthelandthathadbeenownedbypoorerfarmers.Thiswascalledtheenclosure
movement.InspiredbytheScientificRevolution,theyintroducednewwaysoffarming.Onetechniquewastouseaseeddrill.Thismachine
plantedseedsinwell-spacedrows.Beforethis,seedswerescatteredbyhandovertheground.Asaresultofusingtheseeddrill,moreseeds
sprouted.Anothertechniquewastorotatecropsannually.Thosewhoraisedlivestockusedselectivebreedingtoincreasethesizeoftheiranimals.
Asaresultoftheseimprovements,farmoutputincreased.Morefoodwasavailable,andpeopleenjoyedhealthierdiets.ThepopulationofBritain
grew.ThisSecondAgriculturalRevolutionhelpedproducetheIndustrialRevolution.
Forseveralreasons,Britainwasthefirstcountrytohaveaneconomybasedonindustry.
Ithad:
1)
coalandwatertopowermachines,
2)
ironoretomakemachinesandtools,
3)
riverstomovepeopleandgoods,
4)
goodharborsforshippinggoodstootherlands,
5)
asystemofbanksthatcouldprovidecapitalorfundingfornewbusinesses,and
6)
finally,theBritishgovernmentwasstable,whichgavethecountryapositive
attitude.
TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinthetextileindustry.Severalnewinventionshelped
businessesproduceclothandclothingmorequickly.Businessownersbuilthugebuildings
calledfactoriesthathousedlargemachinespoweredbywater.
Theinventionofthesteamenginein1781broughtinanewsourceofpower.Thesteam
engineusedfiretoheatwaterandproducesteam,whichwasusedtodrivetheengine.
Eventuallysteam-drivenmachineswereusedtorunfactories.
Atthesametime,improvementswerebeingmadeintransportation.AnAmerican
inventedthefirststeam-drivenboat.Thisallowedpeopletosendgoodsmorequickly
overriversandcanals.TheBritishalsobuiltbetterroadsthatincludedlayersofstoneand
rocktopreventwagonsfrombeingstuckinthemud.
·
Startinginthe1820s,steamfueledanewburstofindustrialgrowth.Atthattime,a
Britishengineersetuptheworld'sfirstrailroadline.Itusedasteamdrivenlocomotive.
Soon,railroadswerebeingbuiltalloverBritain.Therailroadboomhelpedbusiness
ownersmovetheirgoodstomarketmorequickly.Theboominrailroadbuildingcreated
thousandsofnewjobsinseveraldifferentindustries.
Figure10.1GreatBritain,thehearthoftheIndustrial
Revolution
KEYIDEAThefactorysystemchanged
thewaypeoplelivedandworked,
introducingnewproblems.
Thechangetoanindustrialeconomy
broughtmanybenefitstoBritish
people.Theyusedcoaltoheattheir
homes,atebetterfood,andwore
betterclothing.Manypeoplealso
suffered,however.Industrialization
causedmanychanges.
Onechangewasariseinthe
Figure10.2RapidIndustrialGrowthleadtoovercrowdingofcities
proportionofpeoplewholivedin
cities.Forcenturies,mostpeopleinEuropehadlivedinruralareas.Nowmoreandmorelivedincities.Thenumberofcitieswithmorethan
100,000peopledoubledbetween1800and1850.Therapidgrowthofcitiesiscalledurbanization.Becausetheygrewquickly,citieswerenotideal
placestolive.Peoplecouldnotfindgoodhousing,schools,or
policeprotection.Coalsmokeandclothdyespollutedtheairand
water.Thecitieswerefilthywithgarbage,andsicknessswept
throughslumareas.
Workingconditionswereharshaswell.Theaverageworker
spent14hoursadayonthejob,6daysaweek.Factorieswere
dark,andthepowerfulmachinesweredangerous.Manyof
theseworkerswerechildren,someonlysixyearsold.Notuntil
1819didtheBritishgovernmentputlimitsonusingchildrenas
workers.Manyworkerswerekilledorseriouslyinjuredin
accidents.Someriotedagainstthepoorlivingandworking
conditions.
Somepeopleimprovedtheirlivesintheneweconomy.The
middleclass-madeupofskilledworkers,professionals,business
people,andwealthyfarmersdidwell.Theyenjoyedcomfortable
livesinpleasanthomes.Thisclassbegantogrowinsize,and
somepeoplegrewwealthierthanthenobleswhohad
dominatedsocietyformanycenturies.Still,nobleslookeddown
onthepeoplewhogainedtheirwealthfrombusiness.Who,in
turn,lookeddownonthepoorworkers.
Overall,theIndustrialRevolutionhadmanygoodeffects.It
increasedtheamountofgoodsandservicesanationcould
produceandaddedtoitswealth.Itcreatedjobsforworkersand
overtimehelpedthemlivebetterlives.Itproducedbetterdiets,
betterhousing,andcheaper,betterclothing.Newinnovations
suchastheelectriclight,otherinventionsandaffordable
recreationactivitiesgreatlyincreasedthestandardoflivingof
manyindustrialworkers.Mostofthesebenefitswerefarinthe
future,however.
KEYIDEATheindustrializationthatbeganinGreatBritainspreadtootherpartsoftheworld.
OthercountriesfollowedtheexampleofBritainandbegantochangetheireconomiestoanindustrialbase.TheUnitedStateswasoneofthefirst.
LikeBritain,ithadwaterpower,sourcesofcoalandiron,andareadysupplyofworkers.
IntheUnitedStatesintheearly1800s,industrygrewfirst
inthenortheast.InNewEngland,thousandsofworkers,
mostlyyounggirls,cametothesetownstoworkintextile
mills.Later,inthelastdecadesofthe1800s,arapidburst
ofindustrialgrowthtookplacethatwasmorewidespread.
Thisboomwasfueledbylargesuppliesofcoal,oil,and
iron.Helping,too,wastheappearanceofanumberofnew
inventions,includingtheelectriclight.AsinBritain,
railroadbuildingwasalsoabigpartofthisindustrial
growth.
Businessesneededhugesumsofmoneytotakeonbig
projects.Toraisemoney,companiessoldsharesof
ownership,calledstock.Allthosewhoheldstockwerepart
ownersofthecompany.Thisformoforganizingabusiness
iscalledacorporation.
IndustrialgrowthspreadtoEuropeaswell.Belgiumwas
thefirsttoadoptBritishways.Itwasrichinironandcoal
andhadgoodwaterways.West-centralGermany(along
theRhineandRuhrRivers)wasrichincoalandalso
Figure10.4SpreadofindustryacrossEurope
becamealeadingindustrialsite.AcrossEurope,otherareasbegantochangetothenewindustries.
TheIndustrialRevolutionchangedtheworld.Countriesthatadoptedanindustrialeconomyenjoyedmorewealthandpowerthanthosethatdid
not.ThecountriesofEuropesoonbegantotakeadvantageoflandsinAfricaandAsia.Theyusedtheselandsassourcesofrawmaterialsneeded
fortheirfactories.Theysawthepeopleonlyasmarketsforthegoodstheymade.Theytookcontroloftheselands,apracticecalledimperialism.
KEYIDEATheIndustrialRevolutionledtoeconomic,social,andpoliticalreforms.
Thenewindustrialeconomyledtonewways
ofthinkingaboutsociety.Someeconomists
thoughtthatthegovernmentshouldleave
businessownersalone.Theirviewwascalled
laissez-faire,fromaFrenchphrasemeaning
"letpeopledoastheyplease."AdamSmith
arguedthatputtingnolimitsonbusinessoron
tradewouldhelpanation'seconomygrowthe
most.Heandotherwriterssupportedasystem
calledcapitalism.Inacapitalisteconomy,
peopleinvesttheirmoneyinbusinessesto
makeaprofit.Overtime,societyasawhole
wouldbenefit,saidSmithandtheothers.
Thesepeoplewarnedthegovernmentnotto
makelawstryingtoprotectworkers.Suchlaws
wouldupsettheworkingsoftheeconomy,
theysaid.
Otherwriterschallengedtheseideas.Some
thinkersbelievedthatbusinessesshouldbe
ownedbysocietyasawhole,notbyindividuals.Thenafewpeoplewouldnotgrowwealthyattheexpenseofthemany.Instead,allwouldenjoy
thebenefitsofincreasedproduction.Thisview,calledsocialism,grewoutofabeliefinprogressandaconcernforjusticeandfairness.AGerman
thinkernamedKarlMarxwroteaboutaradicalformofsocialismcalledMarxism.Hesaidthatfactoryownersandworkerswereboundtooppose
oneanotherinthestruggleforpower.Overtime,hesaid,thecapitalistsystemwoulddestroyitself.Thegreatmassofworkerswouldrebelagainst
thewealthyfew.MarxwroteTheCommunistManifestoinwhichhedescribedcommunism,aformofcompletesocialisminwhichallproductionis
ownedbythepeople.Privatepropertywouldnotexist.Intheearly1900s,theseideaswouldinspirerevolution.
Whilethinkersdiscussedthesedifferentideas,workerstookactiontotrytoimprovetheirlives.Manyformedintounionsthattriedtobargainwith
businessownersforbetterpayandbetterworkingconditions.Whenbusinessownersresistedtheseefforts,theworkerswentonstrike.The
struggletowintherighttoformunionswaslongandhardforworkersinBritainandtheUnitedStates.Still,bythelate1800s,workersinboth
countrieshadmadesomeprogress.
TheBritishParliamentandreformersintheUnitedStatesalsotookstepstotrytofixsomeoftheworstfeaturesofindustrialism.Britainpassed
lawsthatputlimitsonhowmuchwomenandchildrencouldwork.GroupsintheUnitedStatespushedforsimilarlaws.Anothermajorreform
movementofthe1800swasabolition.TheBritishParliamenttookthefirststepbyendingtheslavetradein1807.Itabolishedslaverycompletely
in1833.SlaverywasfinallyendedtheUnitedStatesin1865,aftertheCivilWar.SpainendedslaveryinPuertoRicoin1873andinCubain1886.
Brazilbecamethelastcountrytobanslavery,whichitdidin1888.
Womenwereactiveintheseandotherreformmovements.Astheyfoughtfortheendofslavery,manywomenlaunchedanefforttowinequal
rightsforwomen.ThemovementforequalitybeganintheUnitedStatesin1848.In1888,womenfromaroundtheworldformedagroup
dedicatedtothiscause.
AnAgeofDemocracyandProgress,(1815–1914)
InBritain,reformsgaveallmentherighttovote.ArepublicwasproclaimedinFrance,butpoliticalconflictcontinued.SomeBritishcolonieswon
therighttogovernthemselves,butthestruggleforthatrightwasnoteasyinIreland.TheUnitedStatesfoughtacivilwarthatfinallyputanendto
slavery.Newinventionsandscientificadvancesmadelifemorehealthfulandenjoyable.
KEYIDEASpurredbythedemandsofordinarypeople,GreatBritainandFranceunderwentdemocraticreforms.
KEYIDEABritainallowedself-ruleinCanada,Australia,andNewZealandbutdelayedindependenceforIreland.
KEYIDEATheUnitedStatesexpandedacrossNorthAmericaandfoughtabloodycivilwar.
TheUnitedStateshadtroublesofitsown.Intheearly1800s,thenationgrewinsize.ItboughtahugepieceoflandfromFranceintheLouisiana
Purchase.ItwonawarwithMexicointhe1840sandthusgainedevenmoreland.Manysaiditwas"ManifestDestiny".Aswhitesettlersmoved
fartherandfartherwest,NativeAmericanssuffered.Inthe1830s,manythousandswereforcedtomovefromtheirhomesintheeasternstatesto
thepresentstateofOklahoma.
Thisgrowthraisedseriousquestions.The
southernstatesusedslavelabortogrowcrops
suchascotton.PeopleintheSouthhopedto
extendslaverytothenewwesternlands.Many
intheNorth,however,believedthatslavery
waswrongandshouldbeended.Conflictover
slaveryeventuallyledtotheCivilWar.The
southernstatesseceded,orpulledoutof,the
Union.WhensouthernforcesfiredonaUnion
fortin1861,warbrokeout.Thefightinglasted
fourlongandbloodyyears.TheNorthwonthe
war.
Duringthefighting,PresidentAbrahamLincoln
declaredthatslaverywasendedintheUnited
States.Later,theConstitutionwaschangedto
Figure10.6Slaverydominatedinthesoutheast
makethisthelawofthelandandtosaythatAfricanAmericanswerecitizens.
Inthefirstfewyearsafterthewar,newlyfreedAfricanAmericansenjoyedequalrights.
Later,whitesregainedcontrolofthegovernmentsofthesouthernstates.Theypassed
lawsthattookawaytherightsofblacksandtreatedthemunfairly.Theselawsare
referredtocollectivelyasJimCrowLaws.ItwouldbemanyyearsbeforeAfrican
Americanscouldenjoyequality.
TheeconomyoftheSouthwasdestroyedbytheCivilWar.Elsewhere,though,thenation
sawasurgeofindustrialgrowth.Helpingachievethisgreatgrowthwasasharprisein
immigrationfromEurope.By1914,morethan20millionpeoplehadcometotheUnited
States.
Figure10.7PoliticalCompromisesregarding
expansionofslaverypriortoCivilWar
#11-THEAGEOFIMPERIALISM,(1850–1914) KEYIDEAIgnoringtheclaimsofAfricanethnicgroups,kingdoms,andcity-states,Europeansestablishedcolonialclaims.
Intheearly1800s,EuropeannationshadjustatoeholdinAfrica,holdingonlyareasalongthecoast.Inthemid-1800s,though,Europeanshad
renewedinterestinAfrica.Thisrose,inpart,fromadesiretocreateoverseasempires,amovementcalledimperialism.Severalfactorsled
EuropeanstoclaimcontrolofalmostallofAfrica.Europeannationswantedtocontrollandsthathadrawmaterialstheyneededfortheirindustrial
economies.Theyalsowantedtoopenupmarketsforthegoodstheymade.Nationalismfedthedriveforempiresaswell.Anationoftenfeltthat
gainingcolonieswasameasureofitsgreatness.Racismwasanotherreason.EuropeansthoughtthattheywerebetterthanAfricans.Finally,
Christianmissionariessupportedimperialism.TheythoughtthatEuropeanrulewouldendtheslavetradeandhelpthemconvertnativepeoples.
Asaresultofthesefactors,thenationsofEuropebegantoseizelandsinAfrica.Technologyhelpedthemsucceed.Steamengines,railroads,and
telegraphsmadethemabletopenetratedeepintoAfricaandstillhavecontactwiththehomecountry.Machinegunsgavethemaweaponoffar
greaterpowerthananyAfricanpeoplespossessed.Finally,discoveryofquininegavedoctorsaweaponagainstmalaria,whichstruckEuropeans.
SomeAfricansresisted,butmosteffortsfailed.TheywerealsohelpedbythelackofunityamongAfricanpeoples.
TheeventscalledtheEuropean"ScrambleforAfrica"beganinthe1880s.ThediscoveryofgoldanddiamondsinAfricaincreasedEuropean
interestinthecontinent.Sothattheywouldnotfightovertheland,
EuropeanpowersmetattheBerlinConferencein1884-85.Theyagreed
thatanynationcouldclaimanypartofAfricasimplybytellingtheothers
andbyshowingthatithadcontrolofthearea.Europeansmovedquickly
tograbland.By1914,onlyLiberiaandEthiopiawereindependentof
Europeancontrol.
KEYIDEAEuropeansembarkedonanewphaseofempire-buildingthat
affectedbothAfricaandtherestoftheworld.
Europeannationswantedtocontrolmoreofthelifeoftheirconquered
peoples.Asaresult,eachcolonizedregionoperatedunderoneofthese
forms:
• colony-governedbyaforeignpower
• protectorate-alloweditsowngovernmentbutwasunderthecontrol
ofaforeignpower
• sphereofinfluence-claimedastheexclusiveinvestmentortrading
realmofaforeignpower
Figure11.1EuropeanimperialistscarveuptheAfricancake
• economicimperialism-controlledbyprivatebusinessesratherthan
byaforeigngovernment
Africansdidenjoy
somebenefitsfrom
colonialrule.European
governmentsputan
endtoethnicconflict.
Colonialpowers
broughtAfrican
economiesfullyinto
theworldmarketand
builtrailroads,dams,
andtelephoneand
telegraphlines.
Forthemostpart,
though,imperialism
causeddamage.
TraditionalAfrican
societywasdestroyed.
Peoplewereforced
Figure11.2Africawasbroughtundercompletecontrolinlessthan40years
outoftheirhomesandmadetoworkunderhorribleconditions.Finally,thepoliticalboundariesthatEuropeansdrewhadnorelationshiptoethnic
divisionsinAfrica.Theseboundariescreatedproblemsmanydecadeslaterwhenthecoloniesbecameindependentnations.
ThepatternestablishedbytheseizureofAfricawasfollowedaroundtheworldduringthisera.
•
•
•
•
•
EuropeannationsexpandtheirempiresbyseizingterritoriesfromMuslimstatessuchasEgypt,theOttomanEmpireandPersia.
AstheMughalEmpiredeclined,BritainseizedalmostthewholesubcontinentofIndia.
DemandforAsianproductsdroveWesternimperialiststoseekpossessionofthemainlandandislandsofSoutheastAsia.
WesterneconomicpressureforcedChinatoopentoforeigntradeandinfluence.
TheUnitedStatesengagedineconomicimperialisminLatinAmericainthe1800s.
Japan,howeverescapedforeigndomination.Whenfirstthreatenedinthemid-1800s,Japandecided,ratherthanresist,tofollowthemodelof
Westernpowers.Theyeliminatedfeudalism,modernizedtheirgovernment,militaryandeducationsystemandbuiltinfrastructure.Bytheearly
1900s,Japanhadanindustrializingeconomy,haddefeatedaEuropeanpowerinwarandwas,itself,engaginginimperialisminChinaandKorea.
#12-THEWORLDWARS
TheGreatWar(1914–1918)
Strongnationalfeelings,thecompetitionforcoloniesandstrongarmiesproducedtensionsbetweenEuropeannationsandledtowar.Asystemof
alliancesturnedwhatshouldhaveremainedalocalconflictintoageneralEuropeanwarandthenaworldwar.Horriblybrutal,itchangedthelives
ofmillionsandtransformedtheworld.
KEYIDEAInEurope,militarybuildup,nationalistic
feelings,rivalryoverimperialpossessionsand
defensivealliancesledtoacontinentalwar.
Inthefirstgreatindustrialwar,theAllies(GreatBritain,
Russia,FranceandlatertheUnitedStates)facedoff
againsttheCentralPowers(Germany,Austria-Hungary
andtheOttomanEmpire)
KEYIDEAOneEuropeannationafteranotherwas
drawnintoalargeandindustrializedwarthatresulted
indeathanddestructionneverbeforeexperiencedin
humanhistory.
Newtechnologiessuchasmachineguns,tanks,and
poisongaskilledhundredsofthousandsofsoldiersand
millionsofcivilians.Thewarcametoastalematealong
alineoftrenchesonthewesternfrontinNorthern
France.
Figure12.2Trenchwarfare
KEYIDEAWorldWarIspreadtoseveral
continentsandusedthefullresourcesofmany
governments.
Figure12.3AlliancesinEurope
By1917,whentheUnitedStatesenteredthewar,
theconflicthadlargelybeenatastalematefor
threeyears.Ithadhadaterribleimpact,killing
millionsofsoldiersandciviliansandradically
changingthelivesofmillionsmorepeopleat
home.The"GreatWar,"asitwascalled,wasa
totalwar.Itdemandedalltheresourcesofthe
countriesthatfoughtit.Governmentstookcontrol
offactories,tellingthemwhattoproduceandhow
muchofittomake.Governmentsrationedfood
andothergoods,limitinghowmuchpeoplecould
buyandhold.Thatwaytheyweresuretoprovideneeded
suppliestothearmiesinthefield.Theyusedpropagandato
generatesupportforthewar.Theyalsotookstepstoput
downanydissentagainstthewar.
InMarch1918,Germanytriedonefinalattack.TheGerman
armynearlyreachedParis.Thesoldiersweretired;and
supplieswereshort,though.TheAllies,nowwithfresh
Americantroops,drovetheGermansback.InOctober,a
revolutiontoppledtheemperorofAustria-Hungary.In
November,KaiserWilhelmIIwasforcedtostepdownin
Germany.Thenewgovernmentagreedtostopfighting,and
onNovember11,1918(“attheeleventhhourofthe
eleventhdayoftheeleventhmonth”),Europewasfinallyat
peace.
KEYIDEAAfterwinningthewar,theAlliesdictatedaharsh
peacethatleftmanynationsfeelingbetrayed.
ManynationssentdelegatestopeacetalksinParis.
AmericanpresidentWoodrowWilsonpushedforhispeace
plancalledtheFourteenPoints.Hewantedtoendsecret
treatiesandalliancesandgivepeopleinEuropetherightto
formtheirownnations(largelybasedonlinguisticlines).He
alsohopedtosetupaworldorganizationthatcouldpolice
theactionsofnationsandpreventfuturewars.
Figure12.4ThehorrorsofindustrializedwaraspaintedbyOttoDix
BritainandespeciallyFrancehaddifferentviews.Theyhad
sufferedgreatlyinthewarandwantedtopunishGermany.Afterlongdebates,theleadersfinallyagreedonapeacesettlementcalledtheTreaty
ofVersailles.
ThetreatycalledforaLeagueofNations-theworldorganizationthatWilsonwanted.ThetreatytookawayGermanlandinEuropeandtookaway
itscolonies.LimitswereplacedonthesizeofGermany'sarmedforces.Finally,Germanywasgivencompleteblameforthewar,whichmeantit
wouldhavetomakepaymentstotheAlliesforthedamagecaused.
Germany'sformercoloniesweregiventotheAlliestogovernuntiltheydecidedwhichwerereadyforindependence.And,inkeepingwithWilson’s
ideasonself-determinationfor“nationalities”Poland,Czechoslovakia,Finland,theBalticStates(Lithuania,LatviaandEstonia)andYugoslavia
Figure12.5Newcountrieswerecreated
werealldeclaredindependent.Thenewcountries’borderswerelargelybasedonlanguage.TheOttomanEmpirewasbrokenupandBritainand
FrancetookcontrolofitsformerpossessionsintheMiddleEast.Turkey,thesuccessorstatetotheOttomanEmpire,becameasecularcountry.
Thetreatynevermadealastingpace.ThiswasinpartbecausetheUnitedStatesSenateneverapprovedeitherthetreatyorjoinedtheLeagueof
Nations.Also,Germansbitterlyresentedthetreaty,whichplacedalltheblameforthewaronthem.ColonialpeoplesinAfricaandAsiahadhoped
thattheycouldwintheirindependence.Theywereangrywhenthetreatyallowedforself-determinationforEuropeansbutnotforthem.Japan
andItalywerealsoupsetwiththetreaty.Theyhad
bothjoinedthewarinhopesofwinningmorelandand
weredisappointedbygettingfewterritorialgains.
Forthesereasons,thepeacewasuncertain.Itwas
certain,though,thatthewarhadmadeagreatmark
ontheworld.About8.5millionsoldiershaddiedand
another21millionhadbeenwounded.Countless
civilianshadsufferedaswell.Theeconomiesofthe
warringnationshadsufferedseriousdamage,too.
Farmsweredestroyedandfactoriesruined.One
estimatesaidthewarhadcaused$33billionin
damage.Alongwiththisdeathanddestruction,the
warhadanemotionalcost.Peoplefeltdisillusioned
sinceallthesufferingdidnotseemtohaveapurpose.
Theartandliteratureoftheyearsafterthewar
reflectedanewsenseofhopelessnessinpeople.
Figure12.6WorldWar1devastatesEurope
KEYIDEAUnrestinRussia
eruptedinrevolutionwhich
producedthefirstcommunist
government.
AboutthetimetheU.S.
enteredWWI,Russialeftit.
Sufferingduringthewar
chippedawayattheRussian
people'ssupportfortheczar.
Acommunistgroupknownas
theBolsheviksledbyVladimir
LeninseizedRussia's
government.Followingthe
teachingsofKarlMarx,Lenin
seizedallfarmlandand
factoriesandturnedcontrolof
themovertolocalcouncils
knownassoviets.Aftera
three-yearlongcivilwar,Lenin
andhisRedArmywereableto
consolidatepower.In1921,
Russiabecameknownasthe
UnionofSovietSocialist
RepublicsortheSovietUnion.
AfterLenindied,Stalinseized
powerandtransformedthe
SovietUnionintoatotalitarian
state,adictatorshipwithtotal
completecontroloveritspeople'slives.Hecollectivizedfarming;aneffortwhichendedinmassivefamine.Healsofollowedstrictfive-yearplans
whichsucceededinmakingtheUSSRanindustrialpower.
YearsofCrisis(1919–1939)
AfterWorldWarI,newideasandtechnologieschangedoldwaysofthinkingandliving.TheeconomiccollapsecalledtheGreatDepressiontested
weakdemocraticgovernmentsinEuropeandhelpedbringdictatorstopowerinEasternEuropeduringthe1930s.Japan,Germany,andItalytook
aggressiveactionsagainsttheirneighborsthatwouldsoonplungetheworldintoanotherwar.
KEYIDEABeginningin1929,aneconomicdepressionintheUnitedStatesspreadtotheworldandlastedadecade.Becauseofpoliticaland
economicproblems,ItalyandGermanyturnedtodictators.
TheeconomiccrisisoftheGreat
Depressionledtothelossofdemocracy.
InplaceslikeGermanyandItalymillionsof
peopleturnedtostrongrulerstotryto
solvetheireconomicproblems.These
toughleadersfollowedasetoftotalitarian
beliefscalledfascism.Fascistleaderswere
stronglynationalist.Theybelievedin
strengthandpowerandbuiltstrong
militaryforces.Fascistgovernmentswere
controlledbyoneparty,andthatparty
wasdominatedbyoneleader.Theleader
wasthenation'sdictator.Fascist
governmentsdidnotgiveanyrightsto
theirpeople.
FascismaroseinItalyunderBenito
MussoliniandinGermanyunderAdolf
Hitler,whowastheleaderoftheNaziparty.HitlerbelievedthatGermansweresuperiortoallotherpeople.HesaidthattheTreatyofVersailles
treatedGermanyunfairlyandthatacrowdedGermanyneededthelandsofEasternEuropeandRussiatothrive.
KEYIDEAAsGermany,Italy,andJapanseizedothercountries,therestoftheworlddidnothing.
Westerndemocraciesstoodbyasfascistdictatorshipstookaggressiveactionstowardstheirneighbors.ItalyseizedEthiopiaandAlbania,Japan
invadedChinaandGermanyannexedAustria.InSeptemberof1938,GermansdemandedthataGerman-speakingminorityintheSudetenland,an
areaofCzechoslovakia,beunitedwithGermany.Thistypeofdemandiscalledirredentism.Afteraseriesofnegotiationsandinanefforttoavoid
war,WesternleadersappeasedHitlerandgaveintohisdemands.
WorldWarII(1939-1945)
Germany'sAdolfHitlerbegan
WorldWarIIinEuropewiththe
invasionofPolandinSeptember
1939.Usingsudden,massattacks,
GermanyoverranmuchofEurope
andNorthAfrica.
Nearlysixyearsofbrutalwarfare
followed.TheUnitedStates
enteredthewarinDecember1941
afteraJapaneseattackontheU.S.
navalbaseatPearlHarbor.Hitler's
racialhatredresultedinthe
attemptedgenocideoftheJewish
people.DuringtheHolocaust
Hitler'sNaziskilledsixmillionJews
andfivemillionother"nonAryans."By1943,thetidewas
turningandtheUnitedStates,
GreatBritain,andtheSovietUnion
scoredkeyvictories.TheUnited
StatesusesatomicbombstoendthewarinthePacificusheringinthe“NuclearAge.”Afteryearsofstruggle,theAllieshadwonthewarbut
millionshaddiedandlargepartsofEuropeandJapanweredestroyed.
Withalmost40milliondeadandhundredsofcitiesdestroyed.SufferingcontinuedformanyyearsinEurope.
TheoldFascistgovernmentshaddisappeared.Atfirst,theCommunistpartiesgrewstronginFranceandItaly.Peoplewhoopposedcommunism
grewalarmed.Theyvotedotherpartiesintopower.Whentheeconomiesof
theselandsimproved,communismlostitsappeal.Duringeffortstorebuild
Europe,theAlliesheldtrialsinthecityofNuremberg,Germany.There,captured
Nazileaderswerechargedwithcrimesagainsthumanity.Theywerefoundguilty,
andsomewereexecuted.
Figure12.10HolocaustVictims
TheU.S.ArmyoccupiedJapanunderthecommandofGeneralMacArthur.He
disbandedtheJapanesearmyandtookstepstogivefarmersandworkersmore
powerintheeconomy.HeledtheefforttowriteanewconstitutionforJapan,
whichchangedhowtheJapaneseviewedtheworld.Theemperorwasforcedto
declarethathewasnotagod.Thenewconstitutiongaveallpowertothe
Japanesepeople,whovotedformembersofaparliamentthatwouldrulethe
land.AllJapaneseoverage20--includingwomen-weregiventherighttovote.In
1951,othernationsfinallysignedaformalpeacewithJapan.Afewmonthslater,
U.S.militaryoccupationended.
Figure12.11MushroomCloudafteranatomicexplosion
Figure12.13AftermathofHiroshima,JapanaftertheU.S.droppedtheAtomicBomb
#13-THEPOST-WARWORLD
RestructuringthePostwarWorld(1945–Present)
TheUnitedStatesandSovietUnion(whowerealliesduringWWII)opposedeachotherastheytriedtoachievedifferentgoals.Communistswona
civilwarinChina.TheUnitedStatesfoughttwowarsinAsiatryingtocontaincommunism.TheColdWaralsospreadtoLatinAmericaand
elsewhere.BytheendofthecenturytheColdWarwasoverandnewproblemsarose.
KEYIDEAThetwosuperpowersattheendofWWII,theU.S.andtheSovietUnion,hadconflictingaimswhichledtoglobalcompetition.
TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwerealliesduringWorldWarII.InFebruary1945,theyagreedthatGermanywouldbedividedinto
separateoccupationzones.TheyalsoagreedthatGermanywouldhavetorepaytheSovietUnionfordamageandlossoflife.SovietleaderJoseph
Stalin,inturn,promisedfreeelectionsinEasternEurope.
ThesealliesalsowereamongfiftycountriesthatformedtheUnitedNationsin1945.Thisnewworldbodywaspledgedtosavetheworldfromwar.
However,thetwosuperpowershadsharppoliticalandeconomicdifferences.Theyalsohaddifferentgoalsafterthewar.TheUnitedStates
wantedtoencouragedemocracyandtrade.Itwantedtoputthe
differentoccupationzonesofGermanybacktogethertomakeone
nation.TheSovietUnionhadthesegoals:topromotecommunism,
totakeadvantageofrawmaterialsinEasternEuropetorebuildits
owneconomy,andtokeepGermanydividedandweak.
TherelationshipbetweentheUSandUSSRsoondeteriorated.The
growingstrugglecametobecalledtheColdWar.Tensionswere
especiallyhighinEuropewherethecontinentwasdividedinto
communistandnon-communistcamps.Berlin,Germanywasa
dividedcitymarkedbyawallseparatingitstwosides.Manyother
countriesalliedwithonesuperpoweroranother.TheUnitedStates,
Canada,andseveralcountriesinWesternEuropeformedtheNorth
AtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO).Inthismilitaryalliance,each
nationpromisedtodefendanyothermemberthatwasattacked.
TheSovietsandthecountriesofEasternEuropemadeasimilar
militaryalliance.ItwascalledtheWarsawPact.An“IronCurtain”
stretchedacrosscentralEuropeseparatingthetwoalliances.
TheWesternalliesfollowedastrategycalledcontainment,whichmeantthattheywouldopposethespreadofcommunismanywhereintheworld
whereitthreatenedpro-Westerngovernments.Whilethispolicywouldproveultimatelysuccessful,itledtomanyconflictsinthelasthalfofthe
th
20 century.
KEYIDEAChinesecommunistsdefeatedNationalistforcesandtwoseparateChinasemerged.
NationalistsandCommunistsfoughtforcontrolofChinainthe1930s.
WhenJapaninvadedChina,thetwosidesjoinedtofightthecommon
enemy.AfterWorldWarII,theybeganfightingeachotheragain.In
1949,thecommunistswonbecausetheirtroopswerewell-trainedin
guerrillawar.Theyalsoenjoyedthebackingofthepeasants.In1949,
JiangJieshi(ChiangKai-shek)andotherNationalistsfledtotheislandof
Taiwan.TheUnitedStateshelpedJiangsetupanewgovernmentthere.
TheNationalistscalledtheirlandtheRepublicofChina.TheSoviets
helpedMaoZedongandhisPeople'sRepublicofChina.
KEYIDEAInKoreaandVietnam,theColdWarflaredintoactualwars
supportedmainlybythesuperpowers.
OtherconflictsalsoreflectedColdWarrivalries.In1950,communist
NorthKoreainvadedSouthKoreawhichwasalliedwiththeUnitedStates.Thetwosidesfoughtabloodyconflictthateventuallydrewin
CommunistChina.Afterthreeyears,thisconflictendedinastalemateandtheKoreanpeninsularemainsdividedtoday.
TheUnitedStatesbecameembroiledinawarinSoutheastAsiancountrieswhichhadformerlybeencoloniesoftheFrench.Afteryearsofbitter
guerillawarfarecommunistswereabletogaincontrolofVietnam,CambodiaandLaos.AmericaninvolvementinthewarinSoutheastAsiacaused
greatpoliticalandgenerationalconflictathome.
Elsewherearoundtheworld,inAfrica,LatinAmericaandtheMiddleEast,thesuperpowersbecameinvolvedinlocalconflictsthatwereproxywars
fortheColdWar.TheUSSRanditsalliessupportedgovernmentsandrebelsthatfavoredacommunistsystemwhiletheU.S.anditsallies
supportedgovernmentsandrebelswhofavoredcapitalism.
KEYIDEAInthe1980s,SovietleaderMikhailGorbachevpromoteddemocraticreforms,whichspreadtoEasternEurope.
Bythe1980s,theSovieteconomicsystemwasbadlylaggingbehindthegrowthofWesterncountries.Corruptionwasrampantandconsumer
goodswerelargelyunavailabletomostofthepopulation.Westerncountriesgeneratedgreaterwealthandproductivity,innovationandenjoyed
greaterpoliticalandsocialfreedoms.ThenewSovietleader,MikhailGorbachevdecidedtotrytoreformtheSovietsysteminanattempttosaveit.
HeindicatedthattheUSSRwouldnolongerstifleoppositioninitsEasternEuropeansatellitesandpromisedtoopenuphissociety.However,his
reformsdidnotsavecommunism.By1989,peopleacrossEasternEuropehadoverthrowntheircommunistdictatorshipsandreplacedthemwith
freelyelectedgovernments.TheBerlinWallwastorndownandGermanywasreunited.
Figure13.6FalloftheBerlinWall
KEYIDEAIntheearly1990s,theSovietUnion,Yugoslavia,andCzechoslovakiaallbrokeapart.
Figure13.7MikhailGorbachev
WhilefreedomwassweepingEasternEurope,theSovietUnionhadserioustroubles.Peoplefrommanydifferentethnicgroupsbegancallingfor
therighttohavetheirownnation.In1990,Lithuaniadeclareditselfindependent.Gorbachevsenttroops,andtheyfiredonaciviliancrowd,killing
afewpeople.ThisactionandthefailureofhisreformscostGorbachevsupportamongtheSovietpeople.MoreandmorerepublicsintheSoviet
Uniondeclaredtheirindependence.Bytheendof1991,GorbachevannouncedthattheSovietUnionwouldnolongerexist.Russiaandtheother
14republicswereeachbecomingindependentstates.
Yugoslaviawasmadeupofmanydifferentethnicgroups,andintheearly1990stheybeganfighting.WhenSerbiatriedtocontrolthegovernment,
otherareasdeclaredindependence.In1992,Bosnia-Herzegovinaalsodeclaredindependence.Serbswholivedinthatregionopposedthemove.
UsingaidfromSerbia,theyfoughtabrutalcivilwarwithMuslims,thelargestgroupinBosnia.TheUnitedNationswasabletostopthe-fighting,but
peaceremainsuncertain.
InCzechoslovakia,democracyalsoledtoabreakup.In1993,thecountrysplitintotwoseparatenations:theCzechRepublicandSlovakia.Thiswas,
however,apeacefulprocess,andtodayisknownastheVelvetRevolution.
Decolonization(1945–Present)
Inasurgeofdecolonization,IndiaanditsneighborswonindependencefromGreatBritain,buttheirhistorieshavebeenstrainedbyconflict.Many
newnationswerecreatedinSoutheastAsiaandinAfricaafterWorldWarIIascolonialempirescollapsed.Inthelate1940s,Jewishpeoplewere
giventheirowncountryintheMiddleEast,wherefightingbetweenJewsandArabshaseruptedmanytimes.
KEYIDEAAnumberofnewnationsemergedfromthe
BritishcolonyofIndia.
Sincetheearly1900s,MohandasGandhihadleda
campaignforindependenceforIndia.Twogroupsworked
inthiseffort.TheIndianNationalCongress,alsocalledthe
CongressParty,saidthatitrepresentedallofIndia.Mostof
itsmemberswereHindu,though.MuhammadAliJinnah
formedtheMuslimLeaguein1906becausehesaidthatthe
CongressPartydidnotcarefortherightsofMuslimsin
India.TheBritishencouragedthedivisionofHindusand
Muslimsintotwoopposinggroups.Bydoingso,they
helpedensuretheirowncontrolofthecountry.
However,afterWorldWarII,Britainwaspreparedtogrant
independencetoIndia.TheBritishParliamentpassedalaw
grantingindependenceinJuly1947.Itpartitionedthe
regionintotheseparateHinduandMuslimnationsofIndia
Figure13.8Jinnah&Gandhiin1944
andPakistan.Thelawgavepeopleonlyonemonthto
decidewhichcountrytheywantedtoliveinandtomovethere.Asmillionsofpeoplebegantomove,violencebrokeout.Muslims,Hindus,and
Sikhs,anotherreligiousgroup,killedeachother.Gandhipleadedto
endallviolence.AHinduextremistassassinatedGandhifor
protectingMuslims.
JawaharlalNehrubecamethefirstprimeministerofIndia,andhe
ledthecountryfor17years.HisnewnationandPakistan,however,
quicklywenttowaroverthestateofKashmir.Thisregion
borderedbothcountries;ithadaHindurulerandlargeMuslim
population.Conflictoverwhoshouldcontrolthisterritory
continues today. Pakistan,too,hasbeenmarkedbyviolence.Whenfirstformed,the
nationhadeasternandwesternpartsthatwereseparatedby
India.Inabloodyfightin1971,theeasternpartwonindependence
asthenewnationofBangladesh.Powerstruggleshavecaused
turmoilinthewesternpartsincethen.
OtherEuropeanandAmericancoloniesinSoutheastAsia,suchas
thePhilippines,Vietnam,BurmaandIndonesia,alsobecame
independentcountriesinthepostwarperiod.
KEYIDEAInthelate1950sthroughthe1970s,Africanleaders
threwoffcolonialruleandcreatedindependentcountries.
InspiredbyIndia,EuropeancoloniesinAfricabegantocallfortheir
ownindependence.In1957,Ghanabecamethefirstsub-Saharan
Africancountrytoachievethis.Itwaslargelyapeacefulprocessas
weremanyoftheindependencemovementsinAfricaduring
decolonization.However,significantviolenceoccurredinthe
BritishcolonyofKenya,theFrenchcolonyofAlgeriaandinotherisolatedincidents.
Figure13.9PartitionofIndia
KEYIDEAPostwardivisionofPalestinemadetheMiddleEastahotbedofnationalistmovements.ThestruggleoverwhoshouldcontrolPalestine
isoneofthemostcontentiousissuesinmodernhistory.Wewillcoverinmoredetaillater!
StrugglesforDemocracy(1945–Present)
ThehistoryofLatinAmericarevealedhowdifficultitistosetupademocracy.lnAfrica,ethnicconflictsworkedagainstdemocracy.InChina,
communistleadersmadeeconomicchangesbutkepttightpoliticalcontrol.
KEYIDEAInLatinAmerica,economicproblemsandauthoritarianruledelayeddemocracy.
ThenationsoftheWesternHemispherefolloweddifferentpatternsofdevelopmentinthedecadesafterWWII.ThenationsofLatinAmerica–
MexicoandthecountriesofCentralAmerica,SouthAmerica,andtheCaribbeanBasin-facedseriouspolitical,economicandsocialproblems.Even
thoughtheyhavebeenindependentsincetheearly1800s,fewcountriesintheregiondevelopedstrongdemocratictraditions.Instead,acommon
patternwasofgovernmentswithmilitaryleaderssupportedbythearmyandthewealthyelite.Thesegroupscontrolledmostofthelandand
businessesinthecountry.Althoughmostcountrieshaddemocraticconstitutions,manyofthemlackedfreeelectionsandbasicpoliticalrights.
Politicalopponentsofthegovernmentwereimprisoned,tortured,orexecuted.Economicinstabilitywasamajorproblem,oftennationsborrowed
largeamountsofforeigndebt.
Asthetwentiethcenturydrewtoaclose,manyLatinAmericancountriesmadedramaticprogress.MostLatinAmericancountriestodayhave
democraticallyelectedgovernmentsalthoughthereisstillconsiderableinequityinthedistributionofwealth.
KEYIDEARecenthistoriesofNigeriaandSouthAfricashowhowethnicandracialconflicthashindereddemocracyinAfrica.
Nationshavehadahardtimesettingupdemocracyin
Africabecauseofcolonialrule.Europeanpowersdrewup
bordersinAfricathatpaidnoattentiontoethnicgroupings.
Theyputpeoplewhodespisedeachotherinthesamearea,
causingconflict.Also,theyneverdevelopedtheeconomies
oftheircolonies.Mostofthecolonieslackedamiddleclass
orskilledworkers.Bothareneededforastrongdemocracy.
WhenBritainandFrancegavetheirAfricancolonies
independence,theygavethemdemocraticgovernments.
Soon,though,problemsarosebetweenrivalgroups.
Conflicthasbeencommoninmanypost-colonialAfrican
countries.
Nigeriaisanexampleofthis.In1960,itbecame
independentfromBritain.Butconflictbrokeoutinjusta
fewyears.Nigeriaisdividedbetweenmanydifferent
languagegroups.Inaddition,itispredominantlyMuslimin
thenorthandChristianinthesouth.Afteraperiodof
militaryrule,Nigeriafinallyelectedagovernment.Army
officerssaidthegovernmentwascorrupt,though,and
Figure13.11ApartheidsigninAfrica
overthrewit.Onceinpower,theytreatedthepeoplefromotherethnic
groupsharshly.Theyallowedelectionsin1993butdidnotaccepttheresults.
Today,Nigeria,likemanyAfricancountriessuffersfromconflictbetween
ethnicandreligiousgroups.
InSouthAfrica,theconflictwasbetweenraces.Awhiteminorityruleda
blackmajority.In1948,theyputinplaceapolicycalledapartheid-thestrict
separationofblacksandwhites.BlackSouthAfricansweredeniedmany
basicrights.SomejoinedtogetherinagroupcalledtheAfricanNational
Congress(ANC)to
fightfortheirrights.
Thegovernment
crackeddown,
puttingmanyANC
leadersinprison.By
thelate1980s,
severalriotshad
Figure13.12Shantytown
takenplace,as
blacksangrilystruckbackatthesystem.Also,manynationsenactedsanctionsagainst
SouthAfrica.Theyhopedtopersuadethegovernmenttoendapartheid.In1990,new
PresidentF.W.deKlerktookthatstep.HemadetheANClegalandreleasedANCleader
NelsonMandelafromprison.Parliamentpassedalawendingapartheid.InApril1994,all
SouthAfricans-evenblacks-wereabletovoteinanelectionforanewleader.TheANCand
Mandelawoneasily.In1996,thenewgovernmentapprovedanewconstitution.Itgave
equalrightstoallSouthAfricans.
KEYIDEAChina'sgovernmenthasexperimentedwithcapitalismbuthasrejectedcallsfor
democracy.
MaoZedonghadtriedtobuildaChinaontheideasofequality,revolutionaryspirit,and
hardwork.Buthispolicieskepttheeconomyfromgrowingveryquickly.Otherleaders
Figure13.13NelsonMandela
triedtomodernizetheeconomy.ThiscausedMaotolaunchtheCulturalRevolutionofthe1960s.Theresultwaschaos,anditwasfollowedbya
periodofmoremoderategovernmentaction.
Duringthistime,Chinahadlittleroleinworldaffairs.ZhouEn-lai,anotherChineseleader,worriedaboutthis.HeworkedwithU.S.President
RichardNixontoimproveU.S.-Chineserelations.
AfterMoandZhoudiedin1976,moderatestookcontrolofthegovernment.ThechiefleaderwasDengXiaoping.Hetriedtomodernizethe
economy.Heendedfarmingcommunesandallowedfarmersmorefreedom.Hemadesimilarchangestoindustry.Suddenly,peoplehadmore
income.Theybegantopurchaseappliancesandothergoodsthathadbeenscarcebefore.Inaddition,inordertogetChina’spopulationgrowth
undercontrol,Daomandatedtheone-childpolicy.
Deng'sneweconomicplanhascausedproblems.Thegapbetweenrichandpoorgrewwider,andthereisahighlevelofcorruptionamong
CommunistPartyofficials.Thishascombinedtocauseunrest.Westernpoliticalideashaveenteredthecountry,buttheChinesegovernmenthas
continuedtorestrictthefreeflowofinformationandprotesttothisday.Despitethesepoliticalproblems,however,China’seconomyhasgrown
atablisteringpace.Itisnowtheworld’ssecondlargesteconomyaftertheUnitedStates.
GlobalInterdependence(1960–Present)
Newtechnologieshavebrought-peoplearoundtheworldclosertooneanotherandimprovedtheirlives.Theworld'seconomieshavealsogrown
closertooneanother.Nationsaroundtheworldhaveworkedtogethertotrytobringpeace.Becauseoftechnology,theworld'scultureshave
moreinfluenceononeanothernow.Theincreasingconnectionsandinterdependencebetweencountriesandregionsisknownasglobalization.
KEYIDEAAdvancesintechnologyafter1945ledtoincreasedglobalinteractionandimprovedqualityoflife.
Anotheradvanceintechnologyhasbeenthecomputer.Thesemachineshaveshrunkinsizeandgrowninpowersincetheywerefirstinvented.
Consumergoodssuchasmicrowaveovens,telephones,andcarsoftenincludecomputerchipstokeepthemrunning.Millionsofpeoplearoundthe
worldusepersonalcomputersatworkorathome.
ManyofthesepeopleareconnectedthroughtheInternet,aworldwidenetworkofcomputers.TheInternetallowspeopletoaccessinformationor
communicatewithoneanother.
Newtechnologyhaschangedmedicineaswell.Surgeryusinglasersallowsdoctorstofixproblemsintheeyeorthebrain.Newmethodsformaking
imagesofthebodyhelpdoctorslocateproblems.Researchintogeneshashelpedunlockthesecretsofsomediseases.
Scientistshavealsousednewunderstandingofgenestodevelopbetterfoods.Theyhavemadeotheradvancesinfarming,too.Inthe"Green
Revolution,"theyhaveusedbetterstrainsoffoodcropstohelpfarmersgrowmorefood.Theresulthassavedmillionsoflives.
KEYIDEATheeconomiesofnationsaresotightlylinkedthattheactionsofonenationaffectsothers.
Technologyhasalsochangedtheworld'seconomies.Inthe1950s,scientistsfoundanewwaytomakeplastics,whichcametobewidelyused.In
recentyears,industrieshavebegunusingrobotstomakeproducts.Thesechangeshaverequiredworkerstohavemoreanddifferentskillsthan
before.Theindustrializednationschangedthefocusoftheireconomies.Theycametohavemorejobsinserviceandinformationindustries.
Manufacturingjobsweremoreoftenfoundinthedevelopingnationswherelaborcostsless.
Japan'seconomygrewdramaticallyafterWorldWarII.ByadoptingWesterntechnologies,Japanesecompaniesbecameleadersincars,electronic
goods,andships.Thissuccesswasbuiltinpartonaworkforcethatvaluededucationandskills.TheFourAsianTigers(SouthKorea,Taiwan,Hong
Kong,andSingapore)followedJapan'sexample.ThesecountriesofthePacificRimwerejoinedinthe1990sbyChinaasimportantworldeconomic
powers.
Aglobaleconomylinkingtheeconomiesofdifferentnationsdevelopedinthe1980s.Inrecentyears,theselinkshavebecomeevencloser.
Telephoneand
computerlinks
connectbanksand
otherfinancial
companiesaroundthe
world.Multinational
corporationshave
officesandfactoriesin
manycountries.Their
decisionsaffect
workersalloverthe
world.
AfterWorldWarII,
manyleadersbelieved
thatworldeconomies
wouldbestgrowif
therewerefreetrade.
Thismeansthere
wouldbenobarriers
toblockgoodsfrom
onecountryfrom
Figure13.15ContainerShip
enteringanother
country.Manystepshavebeentakentoputfreetradeinpractice.In1951,somenationsinEuropejoinedtogethertocreatefreetradeamong
theirpeople.Thatgroup,nowcalledtheEuropeanUnion(EU),hasgrowntobecomeapowerfultradingblockwithaspectsofregionalgovernance.
Tocompete,theUnitedStates,Canada,andMexicoagreedtotheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)in1994.
Somedevelopingnationsstillfaceproblemsinbuildingtheireconomies.Thepeopleinthesecountriesliveinextremepoverty,withsmallhomes
andlittlefood.Debategoesonoverhowbesttosolvethisproblem. Economicgrowthputsagreatdemandonsomeresources.
Manufacturingandtradebothusehugeamountsofenergy.Oilhasbeenamajorsourceofthisenergy.Whenevertheflowofoilhasbeen
threatened,theworld'seconomieshavesufferedsevereshocks.Anothersourceofconflicthasbeenwaterneededformanufacturingandfor
farming.Somenationshavecomeinconflictoverwatersupplies.
Growthhasalsocausedproblemsfortheenvironment.Burningcoalandoilhaspollutedtheair.Ithascausedacidrainandbroughtabouta
generalrisingoftemperaturesonEarth.Releaseofsomechemicalsintotheairhasweakenedtheearth'sozonelayer.Thislayerofairblocksout
dangerousraysfromthesun.
Manyscientistsunderstandtheneedtocontinuetoleteconomiesgrow.Theyurge,though,thatthisgrowthtakeplacewithoutusingupthe
world'sresourcestooquickly.Thismovementcentersonanideacalled"sustainablegrowth."
KEYIDEASince1945,nationshaveusedcollectivesecurityeffortstosolveproblems.
AfterWorldWarII,thereweremanysmaller,Iocalconflicts.Thesedidposethreatstoworldpeace,however.Nationsbegantojointogethertotry
tosolveconflictsbetweennations.
TheUnitedNations(UN)wasformedattheendofWorldWarIItopromoteworldpeace.Itnowhasmorethan180membernations.TheUN
providesaplaceforcountries-orgroupswithincountries-tospeaktheirviews.Whengroupsatwarrequestit,theUNcansendtroopsasa
peace-keepingforce.Thesesoldiers-whocomefrommembernations-helpstopviolencefrombreakingout.UNpeacekeepershaveservedin
regionssuchCentralAmerica,SouthwestAsia,andAfrica.
Anotherapproachtogreaterpeaceandsecurityhasbeentheattempttolimitweaponsofmassdestruction.Theseincludenuclearmissiles,
chemicalweapons,andbiologicalweapons.In1968,manynationssignedatreatyagreeingnottodevelopnuclearweapons.Inthe1990s,the
UnitedStatesandRussiahavemadeagreementstodestroymanyoftheirnuclearweapons.Inanothertreaty,manynationspromisednotto
developchemicalorbiologicalweapons.Threatstosafetyremain.Someterroristgroupsmaydevelopandusetheseweapons.Asaresult,itisan
internationalproblem.
Nationsarealsotakingstepstocombatinternationalterrorismwagedbyextremistgroups.
Terroristsareathreattosecurityinmanycountries,includingtheUnitedStates.OnSeptember11,2001,terroristshijackedfourairlinersand
endedupdestroyingthetwintowersoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCityanddamagingthePentagonbuildinginWashington,D.C.
TerroristgroupshavealsostruckcountriesinAsia,Africa,Europe,andtheMiddleEast.Internationalanti-terroristeffortsincludeconducting
militaryoperationsagainstterroristcamps,tighteningsecuritymeasures,cuttingoffterrorists'sourcesoffunds,andurginggovernmentsaround
theworldnottoharborterroristgroupswithintheirborders.
Anothersourceofworldconflicthasbeenthestrugglebetweendifferentethnicandreligiousgroups.Violencehaskilledthousands.Oneeffortto
trytosolvethisproblemhasbeenthemovementforhumanrights.In1948,theUNapprovedtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.This
statementlistsspecificrightsthatallpeopleshouldhave.Later,theHelsinkiAccords,signedbymanynationsin1975,includedsuchrightsasthe
freedomtoexchangeinformation.Manygroupsthroughouttheworldkeepacloseeyeonhowwellnationsdoinprovidingtheserightsfortheir
people.
Inrecentyears,millionsofpeoplehavemovedfromonecountrytoanother.Someseekbetterjobs.Othershopetoescapeharshtreatmentat
home.Immigrantscanbringmanybenefitstotheirnewhome.Whilepeoplehavearighttoleave,everycountrydoesnothavetoacceptthem.
Sometimesthesepeoplehavetoliveincrowdedrefugeecamps.Theysufferhungeranddiseaseandcancausepoliticalproblemsforthecountry
wheretheyareheld.
KEYIDEATechnologyhasincreasedcontactamongtheworld'speople,changingtheircultures.
Changesintechnologyhavemadeitpossibleforpeopletosharetheircultureswithone other.Televisionisoneofthemainforcesinthistrend.It
providesawindowontheworldthroughnewsbroadcasts.Moviesandradioalsohavehadanimpactinbringingtheworld'speopletogether.
Asaresultofthesemassmedia,theworld'spopularculturenowincludeselementsfrommanydifferentcultures.Popularcultureincludesmusic,
sports,clothingstyles,food,andhobbies.Americantelevisionshowshavebecomepopulararoundtheword.So,too,haveathletesfrommany
countries.BroadcastsoftheOlympicscanreachmorethan200millionpeopleinallcornersoftheglobe.
Whenelementsofdifferentculturesarecombined,itiscalledculturalblending.Inrecenttimes,ideasfromtheUnitedStatesandEuropehave
beenamajorforceinthisblending.OnereasonisthatWesternnationsdominatethemassmedia.Thistrendalsoresultsfromtheinfluencethat
theWesthashadinrecentcenturies.Asaresult,Englishisnowamajorworldlanguage.
About500millionpeoplespeakEnglishastheirfirstorsecondlanguage.MorepeoplespeakMandarinChinese.However,Englishspeakersare
morewidelyspreadthroughouttheworld.Westernclothescanbeseenthroughouttheworld.Westernfoods-suchashamburgersandcola-are
enjoyedeverywhere.SomeideashavealsotraveledfromEasttoWest.Theworldsofartandliteraturehavebecomemoreinternationalinrecent
years.
Someseethisgrowinginternationalcultureasaproblem.Theyworrythattheirownculturewillbedrownedinaseaofinfluencesfromother
lands.Somecountriestrytokeepforeignwordsoutofthelanguage.Othersforbidpeopletowearcertainkindsofclothing.Insomeareas,people
haverevivedoldtraditionsinordertokeepthemalive.
Despitethesedifficulties,itisclearthatthepeopleoftheworldaremoredependentononeanother.Allthroughhumanhistory,peoplehave
facedmanychallengestotheirsurvival.Inthe21stcentury,thosechallengeswillbefacedbydifferentpeoplearoundtheworld.Theyarepeople
whoareinincreasingcontactwithothers.Theyarepeoplewithagreaterstakeinlivinginharmony.