Download The relationship between color and vocabulary learning

The relationship between color
and vocabulary learning
Graduation Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of
English Language and Literature
Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Arts
Natsumi Migaki
2016
i
Contents
Abstract
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1
1.2 Vocabulary learning
1.2.1 Forgetting curve
2
1.2.2 Depth of processing
3
1.3 The role of vocabulary learning
1.3.1 Sensory memory
4
1.3.2 Working memory
5
1.3.3 Long-term memory
7
1.3.4 Phonological loop
8
1.4 The effect of color on memory
1.4.1 Previous research
8
1.4.2 Color psychology
11
1.5 Research question
13
1.6 Summary
14
Chapter Two: The experiment
2.1 Introduction
15
2.2 The experiment
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment
ii
15
2.2.2 Aim
16
2.2.3 Method
(1) Subjects
16
(2) Test design
16
(3) Procedure
18
2.3 Result
18
2.4 Summary
24
Chapter three: The results of the experiment
3.1 Introduction
26
3.2 Summary of the results
26
3.3 Discussion of the results
3.3.1 Discussion of the score from the data
27
3.3.2 Discussion of the score from the questionnaire 28
3.4 Answering research questions
29
3.5 Implication
30
3.5 Limitation of the experiment
30
3.7 Further research
31
3.8 Conclusion
31
Reference
33
Appendices
36
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Abstract
For speaking English, vocabulary learning is the first step. Color
supports the role of memory because colors come into the eyes in an instant.
This thesis discusses what the relationships between color and vocabulary
learning are.
In the first part of Chapter One, we described vocabulary learning,
and kinds of memory. In the latter part, we looked at the previous research
and various color psychology.
In Chapter Two, we explained the process and the result of the
experiment and questionnaire. To examine the differences between red
versus blue, and between ink versus block, 38 Notre Dame Seishin
University students were asked to take the experiment. They memorized 32
Dutch words using four different patterns, and then they answered the
questionnaire. In addition, a week later, subjects took the second test. Then
we compared the scores of the experiment.
In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the experiment and
the questionnaire in detail. Also, the research questions were answered. The
most important finding is that there are no huge differences between red and
blue, and between ink and block. The reason is red enhances one’s visual
effects. Blue enhances one’s concentration. By color psychology, each color
has unique aspect to human mentality. This study proposed it is important to
understand the characteristics of each color and to use colors properly.
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Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Now, the world has become globalized. In modern society, people
around the world speak English everywhere for communication each other,
for business, or for trips. In addition, people are required to speak English as
a minimum skill. Particularly, vocabulary learning is the first step for
speaking English. There are a lot of the ways of learning vocabulary. For
example, using flashcards, listening, writing it many times, connecting
pictures and words, using gestures, making sentences and so on.
One of these ways is using color. When people write down some
important things, they use colored pens like red, blue, or highlighter.
Everyone has underlined and marked the important points of the textbook.
Sometimes, people have underlined too much so that they can make no sense
of where is important. Moreover, people have a concrete image about the
meanings of the colors (for example, red is seen as caution, passion or
excitement, blue denotes calm, cool, green denotes harmony, peace yellow
denotes joy, happiness and so on). We can thus assume that the colored
information will tend to affect memory and this thesis will examine this
assumption. Color supports the role of memory because colors come into the
eyes in an instant. By showing the coloring words visually, we may be able to
improve the vocabulary learning effect.
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1.2 Vocabulary learning
1.2.1 Forgetting curve
The forgetting curve shows how information is lost over time when
there is no attempt to retain it. It is clearly shown in German psychologist
Hermann Ebbinghaus's study in 1885. The graph shows that after 20
minutes we forget 42% of the items we learn, after 1 hour 56%, the next day
74%, the next week 77%, and the next month 79%. The result of this
experiment clearly shows that (1) memory forgets nearly half of the
information almost immediately and (2) but the retained memories are
forgotten more slowly and remain for a prolonged period of time slowly
decaying. In addition, research has found that re-learning is much faster
than initial learning.
Figure 1: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
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1.2.2 Depth of processing
Psychologists Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels of
processing model of memory. They showed deep processing produces longer
lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow processing. Shallow
processing is input and receptive. For example, it might include repeating or
writing out words. We can learn quickly but forgetting is also quick. Deep
processing can also involve output and productive use of the knowledge. For
example, it might include making original sentences or trying to use the
words in conversation. Studying in different ways shows learning is deeper
because you connect knowledge to all your senses. Different sensory organs,
five senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch involve different depths
of processing by nature, generally producing higher recall value in certain
senses than others. Visual input creates the strongest recall value of all
senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers.
Shallow processing
emphasizes the physical structuere of
the stimulus
Structual encoding
Intermediate processing
Phonemic encoding
emphasizes what a word sounds like
Deep processing
Semantic encoding
emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
Figure 2: Stage of memory
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1.3 The role of memory in vocabulary learning
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed a theory of
human memory. They used ‘The Atkinson-Shiffrin model’ to show that the
human memory could be broken down into three different memory stores,
sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
1.3.1 sensory memory
Sensory memory is very short-term memory. Sensory memory
cannot be controlled and lasts only a few seconds at most. Sensory memory is
often confused with working memory but there is a significant difference.
Sensory memory is the initial level of your memory. Humans have five main
senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch, plus others such as balance, time,
pain,. Before the information comes in your brain, any memory will go
through the processing center. The two most studied types of sensory
memory are iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (sound). George
Sperling proposed iconic memory in the 1960s, and it stores information for
200-500 milliseconds, that is, less than a second. Figure 3 summarizes the
discussion of sensory memory in this section.
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Figure 3: the way of sensory memory
1.3.2 Working memory
Working memory has ability to process a lot of information at the
same time. It is said that it is “the brain’s Post- it note”. Miller (1956) said
that the only a small amount of information (7±2 words or chunks) stays in
working memory for about 15-30 seconds. For example, when people are
given a phone number and are forced to memorize it because there is no way
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to write it down. The majority of people will find it difficult to remember
more than a handful of digits for any length of time unless the number was
repeated in their mind over and over again. So, working memory holds a
small amount of information for a short time. Short-term memory decays
rapidly and usually disappears from a person's mind within 30 seconds. In
this 30 seconds, people select rehearsal and encoding or forget. Rehearsal
means that people repeat the information again and again in their head. The
more time people repeat the information, the more likely it is the
information will be sent to long-term memory.
In addition, working memory is influenced by the ‘serial position
effect’. Murdock (1962) conducted the experiment in which participants
learned a list of words that varied in number from 10 to 40 words and freely
recalled them. Each word was presented for one to two seconds. They tend to
remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those
in the middle of the list. This is called the ‘bath-tub effect”. The improved
recall of words at the beginning of the list is called ‘the primary effect’ and
that at the end of the list is called ‘the recency effect’. Murdock suggested
that words early in the list were put into long-term memory (primacy effect)
because the person has time to rehearse each word again and again. Words
from the end of the list were put into working memory (recency effect) that
can typically hold about 7±2 items in memory.
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1.3.3 Long-term memory
Long-term memory has a permanent large capacity. In order not to
forget new information, we need to connect memories in long-term memory.
They divide into two parts, declarative memory and procedural memory.
Declarative memory is memory of verbal information and can explain this
information. In addition, declarative memory can be divided into semantic
memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory includes general facts and
details like names or words and episodic memory has episode that express
own experiences or past memories. Also, procedural memory has unconscious
action or thinking that have nothing to do with verbal information.
Figure 4: Mastin’s table of memory types
1.3.4 Phonological loop
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Baddeley (1974) follows the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin but he
divides working memory into three systems, the phonological loop, the
visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive. Phonological loop retains
verbal information as phonetic code for a short time. Stated quite simply, we
recall the voice or sounds that someone said just by listening in the brain.
For example, when a teacher said, “Repeat after me,” first students just
listen and then students recall and copy the teacher’s voice.
Figure 5: Schematic of Baddeley's Model
1.4 The effects of color on memory
1.4.1 Previous research
Color has as a supporting role of memory, and has a major impact on
cognition and behavior, so that many researchers are interested in color. For
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example, Soldat et al. (1997) showed color had an effect on test performance.
And, Verhoeven et al. (2006) proposed color had effects on the well being of
hospital patients. In addition, Babin et al. (2003) researched color had effect
on product evaluation and purchase intention. While these studies show
good results, some studies lead to conflicting and inconsistent results. For
example, they are divided on whether warm (e.g. red) versus cool color (e.g.
blue) enhance cognitive task performance. While Elliot et al. (2007) and
Soldat et al. (1997) have showed that cool colors led to better performance
than warm colors, while Hatta et al. (2002), Kwallek and Lewis (1990) have
found the opposite.
In the major result from resent studies, Mehta and Zhu (2009) has
explained that warm colors (e.g. red) led to better performance than cool
colors (e.g. blue). First, they suggested that different colors could activate
types of regulatory focus, and affect performances on different types of
cognitive tasks. Higgins (1987) suggested regulatory focus theory that people
could achieve their goals in two different ways, with a promotion or a
prevention regulatory focus. People who have a promotion focus think of
their goals as hopes and aspiration, and approach them hard. On the other
hand, people who have a prevention focus think of their goals as duties and
obligations, and avoid mistakes carefully.
Also, Elliot et al. (2007) conducted that people develop shared
associations with colors. For example, while red is often associated with
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danger and mistakes, blue is often associated with openness and freedom.
Red is likely to activate a prevention focus because it has something to do
with danger and mistakes. Blue is likely to activate a promotion focus
because it has something to do with openness and freedom. In addition,
Fridman and Forster et al. (2003) examined that a promotion focus increases
performance speed and creativity, a prevention focus increases performance
accuracy. Then, they assumed that while red leads to a prevention focus and
then better performance on detailed-oriented tasks, blue leads to a
promotion focus and thus better performance on creative tasks.
In this study, researchers at the University of British Columbia
conducted experiments with 600 participants to see how cognitive
performance varies when people see red or blue. Participants performed
tasks in which words or images were displayed against red, blue or neutral
backgrounds on computer screens. Based on their experiments and analysis,
they realized that red groups did better on tests of recall and attention to
detail, like remembering words or checking spelling and punctuation,
however blue groups did better on tests requiring invention and imagination,
like creative uses for a brick or creating toys from collections of shapes. They
suggested that while red leads to better performance on detailed-oriented
tasks, blue leads to better performance on creative tasks.
1.4.2 Color psychology
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Our lives are surrounded by color; color affects the human mind
more than we might think. We induce colors unconsciously, conversely
speaking; it is possible to induce memories if we know how color influences
people’s minds. Color has a psychological impact, a physiological impact, an
emotional impact, and a cultural impact. According to the psychological
impact, your memorization force, your reminiscence force, and your cognition
increase. Also, you can easily understand when learning with color. Next,
according to the physiological impact, it affects the nerves. The research
suggests red will increase the blood pressure because it gives a stimulus to
the sympathetic nervous system. Conversely speaking, blue or green are said
to relax us. So, our emotions and moods are greatly influenced by color. For
example, a person becomes cheerful if they look at yellow. If you look at
green such as a houseplant, people may feel relieved. Last, culture provides
basic values and feelings so that colors have different impressions on people
according to their culture. For example, in Western culture black is a symbol
of death but in the Eastern culture white is.
The following are some common psychological effects of colors
Red;
love, romance, gentle, warmth, comfort, energy, excitement,
intensity, life, blood,
Pink;
romance, love, gentle, calming, agitation
Orange;
happy,
energetic,
excitement,
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enthusiasm,
warmth,
wealth
prosperity, sophistication, change, stimulation
Yellow;
happiness, laughter, cheery, optimism, hunger, frustration, anger,
attention-getting
Green;
natural, growth, health, envy, tranquility, harmony, calmness,
fertility
Blue;
calmness, serenity, cold, uncaring, wisdom, loyalty, truth, focused,
un-appetizing
Purple;
royalty,
wealth,
sophistication,
wisdom,
exotic,
spiritual,
prosperity, respect, mystery
Brown;
reliability, stability, friendship, sadness, warmth, comfort, security,
natural, organic
Gray;
neutral, timeless, practical
Black;
authority, power, strength, evil, intelligence, thinning / slimming,
death or mourning
White;
purity, innocence, cleanliness, sense of space, neutrality, mourning
(in some cultures/societies)
Red is said to be very attractive in colors. Red is likely to be
attracted people and also to be stored in their memory. If you want to attract
people or want to remember things, it is effective that you use red. Then, red
has a long wavelength of light so that red is easy to reach people’s eyes in
most colors. For example, the signal has three colors; red, yellow, and blue.
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And red has the meaning of “STOP” because red attracts people’s interest
and direct people’s attention towards. Red is often used things that is shown
such as “stop, ban, or danger” because it must catch people’s attention. In the
other hands, blue gives relax to people so it is said that suppress the blood
pressure. Then, blue gives concentration so that people feel slow the time.
The effect that people feel slow time is, in a sense, people fool themselves and
people lead into a kind of “zone”, therefore people keep the high
concentration and they can study long time.
Colors can greatly affect the human mind and feelings, because they
give psychological and physiological effects. Then, we have been controlled in
colors unconsciously.
1.5 Research questions
From the study above, we have learned about vocabulary learning
and color psychology. We will examine these three questions below.
(a) What color is useful for vocabulary learning?
(b) Is there a difference between presenting words in red or blue?
(c) Is there a difference between presenting words in colored type or
with a block-colored background?
1.6 Summary
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In this chapter, we learn how memory works when we memorize
something. Also, we learn the impact and effects of color from previous
research. According to previous research, it seems red leads is to better
memorize vocabulary. We will discuss the three research questions and
results of the experiment in Chapter Two.
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Chapter Two: The experiment
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we could learn about vocabulary learning and color
psychology. In this chapter, we will find out what the relationships are there
between color and vocabulary learning, the difference between presenting
words in red and blue, and the difference between presenting words in
colored type or with a block-colored background.
2.2 The experiment
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment
The experiment was designed to find out the difference between
presenting words in red and blue, and the difference between presenting
words in colored type or with a block-colored background through a test. We
aimed to determine which color, red or blue, is better to memorize vocabulary
according to the test scores and compared the first test score with the second
test score. Also we planned to determine whether the words in colored type
or with a block-colored background are better by comparing their test scores.
2.2.2 Aim
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The aim is to examine whether there is a difference between
presenting words in red or blue and also whether there is a difference
between presenting words in colored type or with a block-colored background.
Moreover, we will examine which color is better to study vocabulary.
2.2.3 Methods
(1) Subjects
38 third or fourth grade subjects in Notre Dame Seishin University
participated in this experiment. They major in English linguistics or
literature. All of them were females. Seven people were 3rd university
students and the rest of them are 4th students. They had studied English for
more than eight years.
(2) Test design
The subjects memorized 8 Dutch words written in the booklet and
answered the questions. For my research questions, the booklet was divide
into four patterns, red words on a white background, blue words on a white
background, white words on a red background, and white words on a blue
background. Put example below and the whole of the test booklet are put in
the Appendix.
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Example of red words.
① 感じる
voelen
② 着る
dragen
③ 三角
driehoek
④
Example of blue words.
① 友達
vriend
② 重い
zwaar
③ 地震
aardbeving
④
Example of red background
①
金曜日
vrijdag
②
絵を描く
schilderen
③
祈る
bidden
④
Example of red background
① おいしい
lekker
②
理科
wetenschap
③
遊ぶ
spelen
④
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In addition, subjects learned French or German when they were 1st
grade. So, I choose Dutch because nobody had learned. However, Dutch and
Germany are similar. On the classification of linguistics, Dutch is the one
dialect of a broad German (Germanic German). So, I avoid the similar Dutch
words and chose nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs equally.
3) Procedure
The test had 32 questions in total and each section had 8 questions.
The students were asked to write their student number and their names on
the test book. They memorized 8 Dutch words in 2 minutes for each section.
When they answered questions, the students could not use their dictionaries
and go back to the previous page. After they finished, all the test books were
collected. The second test was about a week later.
2.3 Results
First we will look at the data by the subjects for discussing whether
there are some differences between red and blue and between ink and block.
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Table 1: the data by subject
RED
Ink
BLUE
Block
Ink
Block
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
Haruna
8
1
6
0
5
0
8
0
Mika
3
0
6
0
4
0
4
1
Yurina
5
0
6
1
4
1
6
0
Mina
6
2
7
3
8
3
8
0
Harukame
5
0
6
0
3
0
8
1
Mariko
8
1
8
2
6
2
8
0
Yuki
4
0
3
0
3
1
3
0
Yumiko
2
0
7
3
5
2
7
0
Yuri
7
1
8
0
7
3
6
2
Kokoro
8
2
5
0
0
0
7
1
Anna
7
1
5
0
6
0
3
0
Maya
7
1
2
0
6
0
8
0
Sakko
4
1
7
2
6
0
8
4
Ayako
5
1
7
2
4
0
6
2
Haruka
4
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
Hiroko
8
7
8
4
7
4
8
7
Yuki
7
2
5
0
5
1
6
0
Aya
7
4
6
2
7
4
8
2
Anna
6
1
8
0
8
1
8
2
Rui
8
0
8
0
8
0
8
1
Mari
8
2
8
0
8
2
7
1
Natsumi
7
1
8
0
8
1
8
0
Yuki
8
5
7
3
7
6
8
5
Saki
8
2
8
2
8
3
8
2
Riko
8
2
6
1
5
1
8
0
Miho
7
3
6
3
8
5
8
4
Shiho
8
2
1
0
8
0
8
2
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RED
Ink
BLUE
Block
Ink
Block
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
Saki
7
1
8
2
7
3
7
2
Yuka
8
0
8
5
8
0
6
1
Sakura
8
0
8
1
8
0
8
0
Saya
7
1
5
1
7
0
4
0
Saki
8
0
8
0
8
0
8
0
Tomoe
6
0
6
0
4
1
6
1
Yume
8
1
8
0
7
0
6
0
Yuna
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
Mina
2
0
5
1
4
0
7
2
Wako
8
3
8
1
8
4
7
6
Ayano
8
0
8
0
8
1
7
2
Average
6.61 1.29 6.50 1.05 6.21 1.32 6.89 1.37
Table 1 shows the scores of the experiment for all subjects and also
the average score. The average score of the first experiment is 6.61 (red ink),
6.50 (red block), 6.21(blue ink), and 6.89 (blue block). Blue block has a little
higher score, but it can’t be said that there is a huge difference between the
four patterns. Then, the subjects were asked to rememorize and do the same
experiment after a week. The average score of the second experiment was
1.29 (red ink), 1.05 (red block), 1.32 (blue ink), and 1.37 (blue block). As in
the first experiment, the blue block has the highest score. These four
patterns have almost the same score.
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Table 2: the average data from Table 1 for the post-test and the delay data
The average score
Standard deviation (std)
First test
Second test
First test
Second test
Red
6.55
1.17
1.41
1.22
Blue
6.55
1.34
1.42
1.54
Ink
6.41
1.3
1.62
1.47
Block
6.70
1.21
1.31
1.32
The standard deviation scores (std) seem to show that there is
considerable individual variation between subjects. The research question
asks about the difference between presenting words in red or blue and about
the difference between presenting words in colored type or with a
block-colored background. For the research question, we divided the
experiment score into red and blue and into ink and block (Table 2). The
score average of the first score about red and blue is the same (6.55). And the
standard deviation scores from the first experiment is 1.41 (red) and 1.42
(blue). This shows that there is no difference between red and blue. The
average score of the first score is 6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And the standard
deviation scores of first experiment is 1.62 (ink) and 1.31 (block). This shows
that ink shows some difference in the result of the experiment for each
subject. Therefore, block pattern helps raise the experiment score more than
ink pattern.
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In this experiment, 38 subjects were asked to memorize 32 unknown
Dutch words in four ways: red ink, blue ink, red block, and blue block. In
addition, we asked the subjects that which color was easier to remember
after this experiment. And also, we asked to the subjects that what colors
they like because the result of the experiment may change due to likes or
dislikes.
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9
9
8
7
7
6
5
4
3
6
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
0
Figure 6: what colors do you like? (Questionnaire)
We allowed multiple answers to the subjects. We see from figure six
that the nine subjects like pink, seven like blue, and six like white. Therefore,
the differences of the results will not be observed by colors.
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red
42%
blue
58%
Figure 7: Which do you like red ink or blue ink? (Questionnaire)
We see from figure seven that the subjects like blue (58%) and red
(42%). We asked the reason why they like the color. Most of the students who
chose blue answered, “Because it is easy to read or because I can concentrate
on the experiment.” On the other hand, the subjects chose red, “Because I
felt I must remember the words or felt the important words.” And one
negative reason for red is “Because red is irritating my eyes.”
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red
21%
blue
79%
Figure 8: Which do you like red block or blue block? (Questionnaire)
We see from figure eight that the subjects like blue (79%) and red
(21%). We asked the reason why they like the color. Most of the students who
chose blue answered, “Because it is easy to read, increased concentration or I
felt relax.” On the other hand, the subjects chose red, “Because it increased
motivation.” And some negative reason for red was “Because my eyes got
tired.”
2.4 Summary
In this chapter, we conducted an experiment and reported the
results. In the experiment, 38 subjects were asked to memorize Dutch words.
The delay test was conducted about a week later. The result of our
experiment clearly shows that the average score of the first experiment is
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6.61 (red ink), 6.50 (blue ink), 6.21 (red block), and 6.89 (blue block). It is said
that there is almost same scores between four patterns. The reasons for
these data, the result and others will be analyzed in the next chapter.
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Chapter Three: The results of the experiment
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we studied vocabulary learning and color
psychology. In Chapter Two, we considered whether there are differences of
the experiment score depending on red or blue, whether there are differences
between presenting words in colored type or with a block-colored background,
by asking NDSU 38 students to take experiments.
In this chapter, we would like to analyze the results of the
experiment and discuss the data in detail. In conclusion, we will show the
answers to the three research questions.
3.2 Summary of the results
In Chapter Two, we looked at the results of the experiment. All the
subjects took tests two times by four colors pattern. The average score of the
first experiment is 6.61 (red ink), 6.50 (blue ink), 6.21 (red block), and 6.89
(blue block). It can’t be said that there is a huge difference between four
patterns. Then, after a week, subjects were asked to do the same experiment.
The average score of the second experiment is 1.29 (red ink), 1.05 (blue ink),
1.32 (red block), and 1.37 (blue block). These four patterns are almost the
same score.
26
The average score of first score about red and blue is the same (6.55).
And the standard deviation scores of first experiment is 1.41 (red) and 1.42
(blue). Then, the average score of first score is 6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And
the standard deviation scores of first experiment is 1.62 (ink) and 1.31
(block).
3.3 Discussion of the results
In this section, we will discuss the results of the experiment in
detail.
3.3.1 Discussion of the score from data
First, we will discuss about red versus blue. The average score of
first experiment about red and blue is the same (6.55). And the standard
deviation scores of first experiment are 1.41 (red) and 1.42 (blue). Then, the
average score of the second test about red and blue is 1.17 (red) and 1.34
(blue). And the standard deviation scores of the second test were 1.22 (red)
and 1.54 (blue). There was no huge difference between red and blue. That is
reason subjects are affected by color psychology of each color. According to
color psychology, red is said to be a very attractive color. Red has a deep
relationship to the vision among the five senses. Red help us develop a
memory remaining in our mind because red comes into their view. On the
other hand, blue relaxes people so it is said that it lowers the blood pressure.
So, blue helps concentration. In short, red enhances one’s visual effects. Blue
27
enhances one’s concentration. For that reason, someone has had influence by
red and someone has had influence by blue. Therefore, the experiment score
is almost equal.
Next, we will discuss ink versus block. The average score of first
experiment is 6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And the standard deviation scores of
first experiment are 1.62 (ink) and 1.31 (block). Then, the average score of
the second test was 1.3 (ink) and 1.21 (block). And the standard deviation
scores of the second test were 1.47 (ink) and 1.32 (block). There are also no
huge deference between ink and block. In terms of red, the average score of
the first experiment is 6.61 (red ink) and 6.50 (red block). On red block, red
area is large but red makes our eyes tired and are irritated from a
psychological aspect. Therefore, red block isn’t suitable for study. However,
some subjects said in the questionnaire that blue block is easy on the eyes.
As a result, the average score of the first experiment is 6.21(blue ink), and
6.89 (blue block). Therefore, in terms of blue, block is more suitable for study
than ink.
3.3.2 Discussion of the score from questionnaire
We see from questionnaire that the subjects like blue ink (58%) and
red ink (42%), in addition, blue block (79%) and red block (21%). On both of
questionnaire, many subjects answered blue. Color psychology shows blue
can relax. As the evidence, many subjects said that they could felt relax and
28
could concentrate on test. On the other hand, some subjects said red felt
important words but some subjects said negative answer that red is
irritating and their eyes got tired. All you have to study is to concentrate.
Therefore, we see from questionnaire that blue is better for learning than
red.
3.4 Answering the Research Questions
We will examine these three questions in the first chapter.
The research questions for this thesis are:
(a) What color is useful for vocabulary learning?
(b) Is there a difference between presenting words in red or blue?
(c) Is there a difference between presenting words in colored type or
with a block-colored background?
Then, in this section, we will answer these three research questions
one by one. First, about (a) it is said by color psychology that red is an
attractive color, and blue raises the concentration. Each color has unique
aspect for human mentality. Therefore, it is important to understand the
characteristics of each color and to use colors properly. Next, about (b) there
are no huge differences between red and blue. The experiment shows that
red enhances human’s visual effect so that the memory efficiency is
enhanced. Then, blue enhances human’s concentration so that the memory
29
efficiency is enhanced. Last, about (c) there are also no huge differences
between ink and block but there is something to do with colors. Red block is
not suitable for the learner because red irritates them. It’s not good for study.
However, blue can help us relax so that blue block is better for study than
red block.
3.5 Implications
Red is likely to be attractive people and also helps words to be
stored in their memory. On the other hand, blue relaxes us and helps
concentration so that people feel the time slows. Blue is intense for human’s
study. Therefore, we will use black when you write the insignificant things
and blue for the important things. In addition, if there is something more
important than blue, then we will use red. We will sustain concentration by
blue and then we will become excited by red so that the important things
became established more memory.
3.6 Limitations of the experiments
There are some limitations of the experiment. First, for example, it
is said that the study by Mehta and Zhu (2009) did not involve different
30
cultures, like China, where red symbolizes prosperity and luck. In addition,
in Japan the sun is often written in red, but in western countries it is often
written in yellow. So, the results might change if the subjects had some
different culture. Another limitation is that we understand the results of
only young females. Last, this time we use red and blue for the experiment.
Therefore, we discussed about only red and blue. That is, we don’t know
about another color. For example, yellow is one of the three primary colors
and use the traffic light for meaning of caution.
3.7 Further research
To follow up this research, there are some ideas. Firstly, our subjects
are only female. However, it is said that male brain and female brain have
some differences. If we asked for male and female, the results of the
experiment would change. Secondly, we use only two colors, red and blue, for
the experiment. The three primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. If we
used another color, there would be a huge difference.
3.8 Conclusion
The purpose of this thesis is to find out the relationships between
31
colors and vocabulary learning. Previous research suggested that while red
leads to better performance on detailed-oriented tasks, blue leads to better
performance on creative tasks. From the experiment, it can be said that
there are no huge differences between red and blue, and between ink and
block. For this reason, red enhances one’s visual effects. Blue enhance one’s
concentration. So, some are influenced by red and someone by blue.
Therefore, the experiment score is almost equal. It is difficult to say the best
memorizing color method but it can be said that there is something effect of
colors and vocabulary learning. Each color has unique aspect to human
mentality. Therefore, it is important to understand the characteristics of
each color and to use colors properly.
32
References
Art Therapy, Color Psychology: The Emotional Effects of Colors.
http://www.arttherapyblog.com/online/color-psychology-psychologica-effectsof-colors/#.VkrzrbSQtmA, (Accessed October 11, 2015)
Memorize, Sensory Memory Is Your Brain Hub.
https://memorise.org/brain-articles/sensory-memory-brain-hub,
(Accessed
November 10, 2015)
Ravi Mehta and Rui (Juliet) Zhu, Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color
on Cognitive Task Performances
http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2009/mehta2009a.pdf,
(Accessed November 17, 2015)
Simply Psychology, Working Memory.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html,
(Accessed
November 10, 2015)
Simply Psychology, Levels of Processing.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/levelsofprocessing.html, (Accessed May 10,
2015)
33
The Human Memory, Sensory Memory.
http://www.human-memory.net/types_sensory.html, (Accessed November 10,
2015)
The Human Memory, Short-term (working) Memory.
http://www.human-memory.net/types_short.html, (Accessed November 10,
2015)
The Human Memory, Long-term Memory.
http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html, (Accessed November 10,
2015)
The New York Times, Colors may affect performance, study suggests.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/health/06iht-color.1.19983382.html,
(Accessed November 17, 2015)
The Team W Blog, Red Or Blue?: Research On Screen Color That May
Surprise You
http://www.blog.theteamw.com/2013/07/17/red-or-blue-research-on-screen-co
lor-that-may-surprise-you/, (Accessed September 28, 2015)
34
Training Industry, Forgetting Curve.
https://www.trainingindustry.com/wiki/entries/forgetting-curve.aspx,
(Accessed November 16, 2015)
35
Appendices
Example first test
Please learn these Dutch words.
①
秋
de herfst
②
デザート
nagerecht
③
上に
boven
④
愛する
houden
⑤
書く
schrijven
⑥
閉める
sluiten
⑦
偽る
liegen
⑧
可笑しい
grappig
1
Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.
①
liegen
(
)
②
boven
(
)
③ de herfst
(
)
④
houden
(
)
⑤
grappig
(
)
⑥
nagerecht (
)
⑦
schrijven
(
)
⑧
sluiten
(
)
3.
2
Please learn these Dutch words.
①
金曜日
vrijdag
②
絵を描く
schilderen
③
祈る
bidden
④
乾いた
droog
⑤
科学
scheikunde
⑥
小さい
klein
⑦
使う
gebruiken
⑧
売る
verkopen
4.
3
Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.
①
bidden
(
)
②
scheikunde (
)
③
droog
(
)
④
vrijdag
(
)
⑤
schilderen (
)
⑥
klein
(
)
⑦
verkopen
(
)
⑧
gebruiken (
)
5.
4
Please learn these Dutch words.
①
おいしい
lekker
②
理科
wetenschap
③
遊ぶ
spelen
④
きれいな
schoon
⑤
建物
bouw
⑥
浮く
drijven
⑦
得点
doelpunt
⑧
失う
verliezen
6.
5
Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.
①
bouw
(
)
②
lekker
(
)
③
schoon
(
)
④
drijven
(
)
⑤
verliezen
(
)
⑥
doelpunt
(
)
⑦
spelen
(
)
⑧
wetenschap (
)
7.
6
Please learn these Dutch words.
① 感じる voelen
② 着る
dragen
③ 三角
driehoek
④ 最高の prima
⑤ 友達
vriend
⑥ 重い
zwaar
⑦ 地震
aardbeving
⑧ 少ない weinig
8.
7
Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.
①
zwaar
(
)
②
dragen
(
)
③
prima
(
)
④
vriend
(
)
⑤
aardbeving (
)
⑥
weinig
(
)
⑦
voelen
(
)
⑧
driehoek
(
)
9.
8
It is end of the test.
Thank you for cooperating with this test.
Please answer these question.
Q1 What colors do you like?
(
)
Q2 Which do you like RED letters or BLUE letters?
(
RED
/
BLUE
)
Q3 And why?
(
)
Q4 Which do you like RED background or BLUE background?
(
RED
/
BLUE
)
Q5 And why?
(
)
10.
9
Example second test
Please write the Japanese meaning.
①
schrijven
(
)
②
nagerecht (
)
③
grappig
(
)
④
sluiten
(
)
⑤
boven
(
)
⑥
houden
(
)
⑦
liegen
(
)
⑧
de herfst
(
)
10
Please write the Japanese meaning.
①
droog
(
)
②
klein
(
)
③
gebruiken (
)
④
verkopen
(
)
⑤
schilderen (
)
⑥
scheikunde (
)
⑦
bidden
(
)
⑧
vrijdag
(
)
2.
11
Please write the Japanese meaning.
①
drijven
(
)
②
spelen
(
)
③
lekker
(
)
④
bouw
(
)
⑤
schoon
(
)
⑥
verliezen
(
)
⑦
wetenschap (
)
⑧
doelpunt
)
(
3.
12
Please write the Japanese meaning.
①
driehoek
(
)
②
zwaar
(
)
③
dragen
(
)
④
voelen
(
)
⑤
vriend
(
)
⑥
aardbeving (
)
⑦
weinig
(
)
⑧
prima
(
)
4.
13